Paralytic rabies in a goat.

BACKGROUND: Paralytic form of rabies is frequent in cattle in Latin America, but it is uncommon in goats. There are few clinical reports on furious rabies affecting goats, and the sporadic cases of rabid goats from surveillance programs worldwide lack clinical data. Furthermore, few studies reported the cerebrospinal fluid findings in rabid livestock. CASE PRESENTATION: On a farm in Midwestern Brazil, six of 47 Saanen goats died within one week. No vaccination protocols were implemented on the farm and the owner stated bat bites history on the livestock. Although rabies is endemic in Brazil, livestock vaccination is not mandatory. One 1-year-old buck was evaluated and showed non-specific clinical signs evolving within 12-h to nervous signs. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis revealed mononuclear pleocytosis, hyperproteinemia and high glucose levels. At necropsy, no gross lesions were present. Microscopically, discrete to moderate perivascular lymphoplasmacytic cuffing in gray and white matter, neuronal necrosis, neuronophagia, and mononuclear ganglioneuritis was observed in the brainstem and cervical spinal cord. Immunohistochemistry revealed strong anti-rabies virus immunostaining. Fresh central nervous system samples were positive for rabies in direct fluorescent antibody test (dFAT) and mouse intracerebral inoculation test (MIT). Exposed livestock recommendations included immediate vaccination, a strict isolation period of 90 days, and booster vaccinations during the third and eighth weeks. CONCLUSION: IHC revealed the widespread distribution of rabies virus antigen in the goat's CNS, contrasting the discrete pathological changes. In this goat, definitive diagnosis of paralytic rabies was obtained through the association of epidemiological, clinical, laboratorial, pathological findings (histology and IHC) and gold standard confirmatory tests (dFAT and MIT).

Ichthyosis fetalis in a cross-bred lamb.

BACKGROUND: Ichthyosis is a dermatological disease characterized by varying degrees of generalized hyperkeratosis and alopecia. Two congenital forms of ichthyosis are recognized in animals: fetalis (IF) and congenita. The disease occurs rarely in cattle, swine, dogs, chickens and a goat; it has not been reported in sheep. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To provide clinical, laboratory and pathological assessments of a case of IF in a cross-bred lamb. ANIMALS: A male cross-bred lamb. RESULTS: Physical examination revealed apathy, fever, ectropion and eclabium. Generalized thickening and scaling of the skin was noted; this was most severe on the face, ears, inner thighs, limbs and perineum. Deep fissures and wounds were present on the hind limbs and forelimbs. The lamb was monitored for 75 days. During this period, lesions progressed and occasionally obstructed the nostrils and increasingly made it difficult for the lamb to flex major limb joints. Postmortem findings included severe epidermal thickening, multiple subcutaneous abscesses, ectropion and corneal scars. Histological findings revealed diffuse orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis, follicular keratosis, irregular epidermal hyperplasia and atrophy of the sebaceous glands. Serum vitamin A concentration was within the normal range for the species. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: This case report describes a case of presumptive ichthyosis fetalis in a lamb. Greater awareness by practitioners is required for this disease to be included in the differential diagnosis of dermatopathies in this species.

Effects of gossypol from cottonseed cake on the blood profile in sheep.

Cottonseed cake contains gossypol, a potentially toxic compound that, when consumed by sheep, can affect reproduction, the immune system, and the liver. Changes in hematologic and serum biochemical parameters were monitored for 63 days in 12 Santa Inês ewes, six of which received ration containing 400 g kg(-1) of cottonseed cake. Blood samples were collected at the start of the experiment and weekly thereafter for hematologic assessment and determination of serum urea, creatinine, total protein, and albumin concentrations and for measurement of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and γ-glutamyl transferase activities. No clinical signs of toxicity were observed. Evaluation of the erythron showed that sheep consuming cottonseed cake had an increased packed cell volume (p < 0.05) and increased erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin concentrations (p < 0.05) in the leukogram and serum biochemistry panel. In conclusion, consumption of 400 g kg(-1) cottonseed cake by sheep for 63 days may induce changes in the erythron but no consistent changes in serum biochemical parameters, indicating no damage to the liver or kidneys.

Pesticides residues in the Prochilodus costatus (Valenciennes, 1850) fish caught in the São Francisco River, Brazil.

The objective of this study was to determine the levels of pesticides in the fish Prochilodus costatus caught in São Francisco River, one of most important rivers in Brazil. Thirty-six fish were captured in three different areas, and samples of the dorsal muscle and pooled viscera were collected for toxicological analysis. We evaluated the presence of 150 different classes of insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and acaricides by multiresidue analysis technique using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), with the limit of detection of 5 ppb. In this study, organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides were detected at the highest levels in the caught fish. Among the 41 organophosphorus pesticides surveyed, nine types were detected (chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dichlorvos, disulfoton, ethion, etrimfos, phosalone, phosmet and pyrazophos) in the muscle, viscera pool, or both in 22 (61.1%) fish. Sampled tissues of 20 (55.6%) fish exhibited at least one of the eight evaluated carbamate pesticides and their metabolites: aldicarb, aldicarb sulfoxide, carbaryl, carbofuran, carbosulfan, furathiocarb, methomyl and propoxur. Fungicides (carbendazim, benalaxyl, kresoxim-methyl, trifloxystrobin, pyraclostrobin and its metabolite BF 500 pyraclostrobin), herbicides (pyridate and fluasifop p-butyl), acaricide (propargite) and pyrethroid (flumethrin) were also detected. In conclusion, P. costatus fish caught in the São Francisco River contained residues of 17 different pesticides, in both muscles and the viscera pool, indicating heavy environmental contamination by pesticides in the study area.

Toxicity effects of toad (Rhinella jimi Stevaux, 2002) venom in chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus).

This study aimed to evaluate the pathological changes that occur after administering different doses of R. jimi (Stevaux, 2002) parotoid glands secretion to Gallus gallus domesticus chicks. Twenty-three animals were used in this study and were divided into 5 groups that received a toad venom dose of 0, 3.0 mg/kg, 6.0 mg/kg, 10.0 mg/kg, and 25.0 mg/kg. After 48 h, the necropsy and pathological examinations were performed. No clinical signs of toxicity were observed in any group. Macroscopically, hepatomegaly, areas of liver necrosis, splenomegaly, necrotic and hemorrhagic cardiac regions, hydropericardium, dark necrotic lesions of Meckel's diverticulum, and hemorrhages in the lungs and kidneys were detected. Histopathological changes included diffuse vacuolar degeneration of hepatocytes, severe sinusoidal congestion, focal areas of hemorrhage in the parenchyma, swollen cardiac fibers, necrotic myocardial fibers, moderate to acute diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, vacuolar degeneration of the renal tubular epithelium, necrosis of renal tubules, and extensive hemorrhagic areas below the brain and cerebellar meninges. In conclusion, pathological changes of the R. jimi toxins in chicks were noted in the heart, spleen, liver, Meckel's diverticulum, lungs, and kidneys. Most of the changes were similar to those observed in humans and animals exposed to toxins from other toad species.

Gossypol promotes degeneration of ovarian follicles in rats.

The present study aimed to determine if gossypol interferes with ovarian follicles in rats. Twenty-four female Wistar rats were assigned to two equal groups: one control group and the other dosed with gossypol (25 mg/kg/day, subcutaneously) for 15 days. Ovarian follicles were histologically classified according to the stage of development and as normal or atretic. Gossypol treatment reduced the length of estrous with an increase in the duration of the diestrus phase. This compound was responsible for reduced serum levels of T4 and progesterone. Treatment with gossypol was responsible for a significant reduction in the number of normal ovarian follicles and a significant increase in the number of atretic follicles, both in all stages of development. Thus, treatment of rats with gossypol was responsible for reduction in the number of viable follicles and changes in hormone levels that resulted in interference of the estrous cycle.

Gossypol toxicity from cottonseed products.

Gossypol is a phenolic compound produced by pigment glands in cotton stems, leaves, seeds, and flower buds (Gossypium spp.). Cottonseed meal is a by-product of cotton that is used for animal feeding because it is rich in oil and proteins. However, gossypol toxicity limits cottonseed use in animal feed. High concentrations of free gossypol may be responsible for acute clinical signs of gossypol poisoning which include respiratory distress, impaired body weight gain, anorexia, weakness, apathy, and death after several days. However, the most common toxic effects is the impairment of male and female reproduction. Another important toxic effect of gossypol is its interference with immune function, reducing an animal's resistance to infections and impairing the efficiency of vaccines. Preventive procedures to limit gossypol toxicity involve treatment of the cottonseed product to reduce the concentration of free gossypol with the most common treatment being exposure to heat. However, free gossypol can be released from the bound form during digestion. Agronomic selection has produced cotton varieties devoid of glands producing gossypol, but these varieties are not normally grown because they are less productive and are more vulnerable to attacks by insects.

Transfer of Caffeine and Its Major Metabolites to Chicken Eggs.

This study aimed to determine whether the eggs of laying hens fed caffeine contain this compound and its primary metabolites (theophylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine). Laying hens were distributed into four experimental groups fed rations containing 0 (control), 150, 300, or 450 µg/g of caffeine. For residual analysis, six eggs per group were collected after 4, 8, and 12 weeks. The concentrations of caffeine, theophylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine were determined in the white and yolk of each egg by a high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detector (HPLC-PDA) method. All four compounds were detected in the white and yolk of eggs produced by hens fed caffeine, but their levels in the egg white were approximately twice those in the yolk. The major metabolite found in eggs was theophylline (57.5% of caffeine metabolites in the egg white and 58.5% in the yolk), followed by theobromine (39.9% in the egg white and 41.5% in the yolk), and paraxanthine (2.64% in the egg white and non-detected in the yolk). In summary, caffeine and its metabolites, theophylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine, are transferred to the chicken eggs.

TLC and HPLC methods for the determination of plumbagin for the diagnosis of poisoning by Plumbago scandens L.

Plumbago scandens L. (Plumbaginaceae) occurs in all regions of Brazil. It has been described as toxic to cattle and goats. Caustic lesions in the upper digestive tract characterize poisoning. P. scandens contains a naphthoquinone named plumbagin, which presents high cytotoxic activity. Plumbago auriculata Lam., a widely used ornamental plant, is considered potentially toxic, but there is limited data about its toxicity. This work aimed to validate analytical methodologies for determining the levels of plumbagin in samples of leaves, stems, and rumen content to be used as an auxiliary chemical marker in the laboratory diagnosis of intoxication. One methodology used thin layer chromatography (TLC), and another used high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The presence of palisade grass (Urochloa brizantha (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) R.D.Webster), Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus (Jacq.) B.K.Simon & S.W.L.Jacobs), corn silage, and rumen content did not interfere with plumbagin in the two methodologies. The TLC methodology generates qualitative results but is simple to implement and has a low cost. The HPLC methodology showed a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.01 µg/mL and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.05 µg/mL. Leaf and stem samples of P. scandens evaluated showed high levels of plumbagin (0.261 ± 0.087 % and 0.327 ± 0.055 %, respectively). In contrast, leaves of P. auriculata did not show detectable levels of the toxin, and some stem samples showed low levels (up to 0.000114 %). Thus, these methodologies can be used to confirm or rule out the consumption of P. scandens in rumen content from animals suspected of poisoning.

Influence of landscape ecology and physiological implications in bats from different trophic guilds.

Bats may serve as bioindicators of human impact on landscape ecology. This study aimed to evaluate the health condition of bats from different food guilds captured in two areas with different land use profiles in Brazil and to compare data on the oxidant-antioxidant balance and histopathological changes due to different anthropogenic pressures. Bats were collected from a protected area in Serra do Cipó National Park (SCNP), MG, Brazil, and an area with intense agricultural activity in the municipality of Uberaba (UB), MG, Brazil. Despite the differences in land use and occupation between the studied areas, bats showed similar responses. However, the trophic guilds were affected differently. Frugivorous bats in both areas showed lower activities of the enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) and concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA) than other guilds, which can be explained by the greater intake of antioxidants from the diet in addition to the lower production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Histopathological analysis of the livers revealed that the animals had a similar prevalence in the two areas, with some differences related to guilds. Compared with other bats, hematophagous bats from SCNP had a higher prevalence of steatosis and, together with frugivorous bats from Uberaba, had higher frequencies of ballooning degeneration, suggesting that these animals are subjected to anthropogenic factors capable of inducing disturbances in hepatic metabolism. Hematophagous bats from Uberaba had a higher prevalence of portal inflammation, while insectivorous bats from Uberaba had a higher prevalence of lobular and portal inflammation. The profiles of use and occupation of the areas are different; Uberaba bats seem to face worse conditions because they show more liver damage owing to lipoperoxidation.

The Health Status of Horses Used for at Least Six Complete Cycles of Loxoscelic Antivenom Production.

Antivenom production against Loxosceles venom relies on horses being immunized and bled for plasma harvest. One horse can partake in several cycles of antivenom production, which will require years of constant venom and adjuvant inoculation and bleeding. The actual impact on the health of horses that participate in several antivenom-producing cycles is unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the general health status of horses that underwent at least six cycles of loxoscelic antivenom production. Seven crossbred horses that had partaken in six to eight complete antivenom-producing cycles were used and established as the immunized group (IG). Under the same handling and general management, eleven horses were established as the control group (CG). The horses were evaluated regarding their general clinical status and had their blood sampled, and an ECG recorded. The IG presented lower RBC and PCV, despite keeping values within inferior limits for the species. Renal function was not impaired, and liver-related enzymes were higher than those in the CG, probably due to liver exertion from immunoglobulin synthesis. ECG showed some abnormalities in the IG, such as atrioventricular block and a wandering atrial pacemaker, corroborated by an increase in CK-MB. The cardiovascular abnormalities were mainly found in the horses that participated in several antivenom-producing cycles. The overall results indicate that these horses had some impairment of their general health status. Once available, some alternative, less toxic antigens should replace the venom for immunization of horses used for antivenom production.

Toxic plants from the perspective of a "Quilombola" community in the Cerrado region of Brazil.

A multi-disciplinary team surveyed ranchers at the Kalunga Historical and Cultural Heritage Site, in the Cerrado region of west central Brazil, to determine impacts promoted by toxic plants on cattle. The expedition to the Kalunga region was carried out by Brazilian and American researchers. Previously selected cattle ranch properties from "Vão das Almas", "Engenho II" and "Vão do Moleque" were visited. Twenty-four interviews were carried out with cattle ranchers and a questionnaire was applied to obtain information about outbreaks of native plant poisoning and their effects on livestock, and the use of local plants in phytotherapy. We classified problematic plants into three distinct categories. First, the toxic plants most cited by residents causing cattle losses were the flowers of Caryocar brasiliense Cambess ("pequi"), the fruits of Terminalia corrugata (Ducke) Gere & Boatwr. (Buchenavia tomentosa Eichler - "mirindiba" or "pau-pilão"), Eugenia dysenterica (Mart.) DC ("cagaita"), and Palicourea marcgravii A. St. Hil ("erva-café" or "cafezinho"). Secondly, other plants considered toxic, but causing less severe losses were Emmotum nitens (Benth.) Miers ("casco d'anta"), Indigofera lespedezioides (Kunth) ("timbozinho"), Ricinus communis L. ("mamona"), Pteridium esculentum (G. Forst.) Cockayne ("samambaia"), Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville ("barbatimão"), and Actinocladum verticillatum (Nees) McClure ex Soderstr. ("cambaúba"). The most important finding was the identification of the C. brasiliense flower as potentially toxic to cattle, which must be subject for future research. Further, we confirmed the toxicity and importance of P. marcgravii, E. dysenterica, and Terminalia corrugata. The survey highlighted phytotherapy plants used by the community, and greatly increased awareness by local livestock producers of poisonous plants for management purposes. We conclude that ethnobotanical knowledge, especially from the traditional community, is essential to understand livestock losses to toxic plants, and should be valued not only for reducing livestock losses, but also for cultural importance to the Kalunga communities in the Cerrado.

Anticonvulsant Activity of Extracts of Plectranthus barbatus Leaves in Mice.

Plectranthus barbatus is a medicinal plant used to treat a wide range of disorders including seizure. However, the anticonvulsant activity of this plant has not been studied in depth. We therefore sought to evaluate the anticonvulsant activity of a hydroalcoholic extract of P. barbatus leaves on seizures induced by strychnine sulphate (2.0 mg/kg) and pilocarpine (600 mg/kg) in mice. The extract was administered orally at 1, 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg. We report that the P. barbatus extract had marked anticonvulsant activity against strychnine-induced convulsions, but was quite ineffective against pilocarpine-induced convulsions. Further experiments will be required to identify the active molecules(s) and their mechanism(s) of action.

Miniaturized QuEChERS extraction method for the detection of multi-residue pesticides in bat muscle tissue.

Habitat loss and fragmentation are among the greatest threats to biodiversity and ecosystem stability, with physiological implications on wild fauna. Bats (Microchiroptera) are small mammals with a wide variety of eating habits, and the well-being of these animals is disturbed by exposure to pesticides. This study aimed to develop a miniaturized QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) extraction method for the detection of multi-residue pesticides in bat muscle tissue using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of 48 pesticides were tested in 250 mg of bat muscle tissue. The developed analytical method was applied to 148 bats collected from two different areas in Minas Gerais State, Southeast Region of Brazil. The method presented good sensitivity and allowed the determination of residues of 48 pesticides in bat muscle using GC-MS. The miniaturized extraction method makes the analysis feasible even when the sample volume is limited. However, no pesticide residues were detected in bats from the two areas investigated.

Neurological and gastrointestinal manifestations of spontaneous poisoning by Ricinus communis in goats.

An outbreak of Ricinus communis poisoning in goats with neurological and digestive changes was related to the ingestion of different vegetative parts of the plant. Two poisoned animals died within 5 h of the plant intake showing necrotic gastroenteritis and hepatocytes degeneration and necrosis. Toxicological analysis by HPLC-DAD assay demonstrated 21.1-25.1 µg/g of ricinine in samples of ruminal fluids and 10.1-10.9 µg/g in the liver of poisoned goats.

Clinical Effects of the Immunization Protocol Using Loxosceles Venom in Naïve Horses.

Bites of brown spiders (Loxosceles spp.) are responsible for dermonecrotic lesions and potentially systemic envenoming that can lead to death. The only effective therapy is the use of the antivenom, usually produced in horses. However, little is known about the consequences of the systematic use of the Loxosceles venom and adjuvants and of the bleedings on antivenom-producing horses. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical changes in horses in their first immunization protocol for Loxosceles antivenom production. Eleven healthy horses, never immunized, were evaluated in three different periods: T0 (before immunization); T1 (after their first venom immunization); and T2 (after their first bleeding). Horses were clinically evaluated, sampled for blood, and underwent electrocardiographic (ECG) recordings. Several suppurated subcutaneous abscesses occurred due to the use of Freund's adjuvants and thrombophlebitis due to systematic venipunctures for the bleeding procedures. ECG showed arrhythmias in few horses in T2, such as an increase in T and R waves. In summary, the immunization protocol impacted on horses' health, especially after bleeding for antivenom procurement.

Protective Effectiveness of an Immunization Protocol Against the Toxic Effects of Loxosceles intermedia Venom in Rabbits.

Loxosceles spp. (brown spiders) bites are responsible for the development of a syndrome consisting mainly of dermonecrotic lesions, and also systemic effects. Rabbits are one of the main experimental models used for better understanding the systemic and local effects of Loxosceles venom. The aim of this study is to evaluate the toxic and protective effects of rabbits immunized with Loxosceles spp. venom. Male New Zealand rabbits were allocated as a control group (CG; n = 5) that received adjuvant (Montanide) and phosphate-buffer saline (PBS), or as venom group (VG; n = 5) that received 21 µg of Loxosceles venom using Montanide as adjuvant. After five immunization cycles, a trial with 7 µg of Loxosceles intermedia (L. intermedia) venom was performed, and dermonecrotic lesions were measured. The rabbits were then euthanized, and their organs were collected for histopathology analysis. Rabbits that had undergone Loxosceles venom immunization protocol showed minor clinical disturbances during the experimental period. The used immunization protocol protected the rabbits against the toxic effect of the Loxosceles venom because they showed minor clinical disturbances during the experimental period.

Cervical Vertebral Stenotic Myelopathy in a Nelore Calf.

This paper aims to report clinical, laboratory, radiographic, and pathological features in a case of cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM) affecting a 4-month-old Nelore calf for the first time. During physical examination, the calf could stand if assisted when lifting by the tail but fallen to the ground when trying to walk. Attempts to flex and extend the neck to the right side failed. Radiographs findings consisted of reduced intervertebral spaces, and misalignments between the endplates, more evident between the C3 and C4 vertebrae, resulting in narrowing of the spinal canal and compression of the spinal cord. Grossly, C4 showed cranial articular surface malformation, abnormal metaphyseal growth plate development, reduced vertebral body size and deformity. Histologically, C4 showed an abnormal vertebral bone development characterized by moderate replacement of trabecular bone by fibrous tissues, multifocal areas of dystrophic hyaline cartilage development, and cartilaginous growth failure along the metaphyseal growth plate. Cervical spinal cord within the stenotic vertebral canal showed swollen neurons with central chromatolysis, areas of Wallerian degeneration, and necrotic debris. In contrast with the well-known Wobbler syndrome in horses, the etiology of CVSM in cattle remains undetermined, and further genetic and pathological studies must be conducted to elucidate it.

Association of Trypanosoma vivax in extracellular sites with central nervous system lesions and changes in cerebrospinal fluid in experimentally infected goats.

Changes in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and anatomical and histopathological central nervous system (CNS) lesions were evaluated, and the presence of Trypanosoma vivax in CNS tissues was investigated through PCR. Twelve adult male goats were divided into three groups (G): G1, infected with T. vivax and evaluated during the acute phase; G2, infected goats evaluated during the chronic phase; and G3, consisting of non-infected goats. Each goat from G1 and G2 was infected with 1.25 × 10(5) trypomastigotes. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis and investigation of T. vivax was performed at the 15th day post-infection (dpi) in G1 goats and on the fifth day after the manifestation of nervous system infection signs in G2 goats. All goats were necropsied, and CNS fragments from G1 and G2 goats were evaluated by PCR for the determination of T. vivax. Hyperthermia, anemia and parasitemia were observed from the fifth dpi for G1 and G2, with the highest parasitemia peak between the seventh and 21st dpi. Nervous system infection signs were observed in three G2 goats between the 30th and 35th dpi. CSF analysis revealed the presence of T. vivax for G2. Meningitis and meningoencephalitis were diagnosed in G2. PCR were positive for T. vivax in all the samples tested. In conclusion, T. vivax may reach the nervous tissue resulting in immune response from the host, which is the cause of progressive clinical and pathological manifestations of the CNS in experimentally infected goats.

Exposure to pesticides in bats.

Bats provide a variety of ecological services that are essential to the integrity of ecosystems. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has been a threat to biodiversity, and the exposure of bats to these xenobiotics is a threat to their populations. This study presents a review of articles regarding the exposure of bats to pesticides published in the period from January 1951 to July 2020, addressing the temporal and geographical distribution of research, the studied species, and the most studied classes of pesticides. The research was concentrated in the 1970s and 1980s, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in the USA. Of the total species in the world, only 5% of them have been studied, evaluating predominantly insectivorous species of the Family Vespertilionidae. Insecticides, mainly organochlorines, were the most studied pesticides. Most research was observational, with little information available on the effects of pesticides on natural bat populations. Despite the advances in analytical techniques for detecting contaminants, the number of studies is still insufficient compared to the number of active ingredients used. The effects of pesticides on other guilds and tropical species remain poorly studied. Future research should investigate the effects of pesticides, especially in sublethal doses causing chronic exposure. It is crucial to assess the impact of these substances on other food guilds and investigate how natural populations respond to the exposure to mixtures of pesticides found in the environment.