Genomic insights into the critically endangered King Island scrubtit.

Small, fragmented, or isolated populations are at risk of population decline due to fitness costs associated with inbreeding and genetic drift. The King Island scrubtit Acanthornis magna greeniana is a critically endangered subspecies of the nominate Tasmanian scrubtit A. m. magna, with an estimated population of <100 individuals persisting in three patches of swamp forest. The Tasmanian scrubtit is widespread in wet forests on mainland Tasmania. We sequenced the scrubtit genome using PacBio HiFi and undertook a population genomic study of the King Island and Tasmanian scrubtits using a double-digest restriction site-associated DNA (ddRAD) dataset of 5,239 SNP loci. The genome was 1.48 Gb long, comprising 1,518 contigs with an N50 of 7.715 Mb. King Island scrubtits formed one of four overall genetic clusters, but separated into three distinct subpopulations when analyzed independently of the Tasmanian scrubtit. Pairwise FST values were greater among the King Island scrubtit subpopulations than among most Tasmanian scrubtit subpopulations. Genetic diversity was lower and inbreeding coefficients were higher in the King Island scrubtit than all except one of the Tasmanian scrubtit subpopulations. We observed crown baldness in 8/15 King Island scrubtits, but 0/55 Tasmanian scrubtits. Six loci were significantly associated with baldness, including one within the DOCK11 gene which is linked to early feather development. Contemporary gene flow between King Island scrubtit subpopulations is unlikely, with further field monitoring required to quantify the fitness consequences of its small population size, low genetic diversity, and high inbreeding. Evidence-based conservation actions can then be implemented before the taxon goes extinct.

Altered wing phenotypes of captive-bred migratory birds lower post-release fitness.

Captive breeding and release to the wild is a globally important conservation tool. However, captivity can result in phenotypic changes that incur post-release fitness costs, especially if they affect strenuous or risky behaviours. Bird wing shape is critical for migration success and suboptimal phenotypes are strongly selected against. In this study, I demonstrate surprising plasticity of bird wing phenotypes in captivity for 4/16 studied species. In a model species, captive-born juveniles with wild wing phenotypes (a 1-mm longer distal primary flight feather) survived post-release at 2.7 times the rate of those with captive phenotypes (i.e. a shorter distal feather). Subtle phenotypic changes and their fitness impacts are more common than widely realised because they are easily overlooked. To improve captive breeding for conservation, practitioners must surveil phenotypic changes and find ways to mitigate them.

Using conservation genetics to prioritise management options for an endangered songbird.

Genetic data can be highly informative for answering questions relevant to practical conservation efforts, but remain one of the most neglected aspects of species recovery plans. Framing genetic questions with reference to practical and tractable conservation objectives can help bypass this limitation of the application of genetics in conservation. Using a single-nucleotide polymorphism dataset from reduced-representation sequencing (DArTSeq), we conducted a genetic assessment of remnant populations of the endangered forty-spotted pardalote (Pardalotus quadragintus), a songbird endemic to Tasmania, Australia. Our objectives were to inform strategies for the conservation of genetic diversity in the species and estimate effective population sizes and patterns of inter-population movement to identify management units relevant to population conservation and habitat restoration. We show population genetic structure and identify two small populations on mainland Tasmania as 'satellites' of larger Bruny Island populations connected by migration. Our data identify management units for conservation objectives relating to genetic diversity and habitat restoration. Although our results do not indicate the immediate need to genetically manage populations, the small effective population sizes we estimated for some populations indicate that they are vulnerable to genetic drift, highlighting the urgent need to implement habitat restoration to increase population size and to conduct genetic monitoring. We discuss how our genetic assessment can be used to inform management interventions for the forty-spotted pardalote and show that by assessing contemporary genetic aspects, valuable information for conservation planning and decision-making can be produced to guide actions that account for genetic diversity and increase chances of recovery in species of conservation concern.

Dominant carnivore loss benefits native avian and invasive mammalian scavengers.

Scavenging by large carnivores is integral for ecosystem functioning by limiting the build-up of carrion and facilitating widespread energy flows. However, top carnivores have declined across the world, triggering trophic shifts within ecosystems. Here, we compare findings from previous work on predator decline against areas with recent native mammalian carnivore loss. Specifically, we investigate top-down control on utilization of experimentally placed carcasses by two mesoscavengers-the invasive feral cat and native forest raven. Ravens profited most from carnivore loss, scavenging for five times longer in the absence of native mammalian carnivores. Cats scavenged on half of all carcasses in the region without dominant native carnivores. This was eight times more than in areas where other carnivores were at high densities. All carcasses persisted longer than the three-week monitoring period in the absence of native mammalian carnivores, while in areas with high carnivore abundance, all carcasses were fully consumed. Our results reveal that top-carnivore loss amplifies impacts associated with carnivore decline-increased carcass persistence and carrion access for smaller scavengers. This suggests that even at low densities, native mammalian carnivores can fulfil their ecological functions, demonstrating the significance of global carnivore conservation and supporting management approaches, such as trophic rewilding.

Mistletoes could moderate drought impacts on birds, but are themselves susceptible to drought-induced dieback.

Mistletoes are hemiparasitic plants and keystone species in many ecosystems globally. Given predicted increases in drought frequency and intensity, mistletoes may be crucial for moderating drought impacts on community structure. Dependent on host vascular flows, mistletoes can succumb to stress when water availability falls, making them susceptible to mortality during drought. We counted mistletoe across greater than 350 000 km2 of southeastern Australia and conducted standardized bird surveys between 2016 and 2021, spanning a major drought event in 2018-2019. We aimed to identify predictors of mistletoe abundance and mortality and determine whether mistletoes might moderate drought impacts on woodland birds. Live mistletoe abundance varied with tree species composition, land use and presence of mistletoebirds. Mistletoe mortality was widespread, consistent with high 2018/2019 summer temperatures, low 2019/2020 summer rainfall and the interaction between summer temperatures and rainfall in 2019/2020. The positive association between surviving mistletoes and woodland birds was greatest in the peak drought breeding seasons of 2018/2019 and 2019/2020, particularly for small residents and insectivores. Paradoxically, mistletoes could moderate drought impacts on birds, but are themselves vulnerable to drought-induced mortality. An improved understanding of the drivers and dynamics of mistletoe mortality is needed to address potential cascading trophic impacts associated with mistletoe die-off.

Loss of vocal culture and fitness costs in a critically endangered songbird.

Cultures in humans and other species are maintained through interactions among conspecifics. Declines in population density could be exacerbated by culture loss, thereby linking culture to conservation. We combined historical recordings, citizen science and breeding data to assess the impact of severe population decline on song culture, song complexity and individual fitness in critically endangered regent honeyeaters (Anthochaera phrygia). Song production in the remaining wild males varied dramatically, with 27% singing songs that differed from the regional cultural norm. Twelve per cent of males, occurring in areas of particularly low population density, completely failed to sing any species-specific songs and instead sang other species' songs. Atypical song production was associated with reduced individual fitness, as males singing atypical songs were less likely to pair or nest than males that sang the regional cultural norm. Songs of captive-bred birds differed from those of all wild birds. The complexity of regent honeyeater songs has also declined over recent decades. We therefore provide rare evidence that a severe decline in population density is associated with the loss of vocal culture in a wild animal, with concomitant fitness costs for remaining individuals. The loss of culture may be a precursor to extinction in declining populations that learn selected behaviours from conspecifics, and therefore provides a useful conservation indicator.

Roadkill islands: Carnivore extinction shifts seasonal use of roadside carrion by generalist avian scavenger.

Global road networks facilitate habitat modification and are integral to human expansion. Many animals, particularly scavengers, use roads as they provide a reliable source of food, such as carrion left after vehicle collisions. Tasmania is often cited as the 'roadkill capital of Australia', with the isolated offshore islands in the Bass Strait experiencing similar, if not higher, levels of roadkill. However, native mammalian predators on the islands are extirpated, meaning the remaining scavengers are likely to experience lower interference competition. In this study, we used a naturally occurring experiment to examine how the loss of mammalian carnivores within a community impacts roadside foraging behaviour by avian scavengers. We monitored the locations of roadkill and forest ravens Corvus tasmanicus, an abundant scavenger species, on eight road transects across the Tasmanian mainland (high scavenging competition) and the Bass Strait islands (low scavenging competition). We represented raven observations as one-dimensional point patterns, using hierarchical Bayesian models to investigate the dependence of raven spatial intensity on habitat, season, distance to roadkill and route location. We found that roadkill carcasses were a strong predictor of raven presence along road networks. The effect of roadkill was amplified on roads on the Bass Strait islands, where roadside carrion was a predictor of raven presence across the entire year. In contrast, ravens were more often associated with roadkill on Tasmanian mainland roads in the autumn, when other resources were low. This suggests that in the absence of competing mammalian scavengers, ravens choose to feed on roadside carrion throughout the year, even in seasons when other resources are available. This lack of competition could be disproportionately benefiting forest ravens, leading to augmented raven populations and changes to the vertebrate community structure. Our study provides evidence that scavengers modify their behaviour in response to reduced scavenger species diversity, potentially triggering trophic shifts and highlighting the importance of conserving or reintroducing carnivores within ecosystems.

An Empirical and Mechanistic Explanation of Abundance-Occupancy Relationships for a Critically Endangered Nomadic Migrant.

The positive abundance-occupancy relationship (AOR) is a pervasive pattern in macroecology. Similarly, the association between occupancy (or probability of occurrence) and abundance is also usually assumed to be positive and in most cases constant. Examples of AORs for nomadic species with variable distributions are extremely rare. Here we examined temporal and spatial trends in the AOR over 7 years for a critically endangered nomadic migrant that relies on dynamic pulses in food availability to breed. We predicted a negative temporal relationship, where local mean abundances increase when the number of occupied sites decreases, and a positive relationship between local abundances and the probability of occurrence. We also predicted that these patterns are largely attributable to spatiotemporal variation in food abundance. The temporal AOR was significantly negative, and annual food availability was significantly positively correlated with the number of occupied sites but negatively correlated with abundance. Thus, as food availability decreased, local densities of birds increased, and vice versa. The abundance-probability of occurrence relationship was positive and nonlinear but varied between years due to differing degrees of spatial aggregation caused by changing food availability. Importantly, high abundance (or occupancy) did not necessarily equate to high-quality habitat and may be indicative of resource bottlenecks or exposure to other processes affecting vital rates. Our results provide a rare empirical example that highlights the complexity of AORs for species that target aggregated food resources in dynamic environments.

Sex ratio bias and shared paternity reduce individual fitness and population viability in a critically endangered parrot.

Sex-biased mortality can lead to altered adult sex ratios (ASRs), which may in turn lead to harassment and lower fitness of the rarer sex and changes in the mating system. Female critically endangered swift parrots (Lathamus discolor) suffer high predation while nesting due to an introduced mammalian predator, the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps). High predation on females is causing severe population decline alongside strongly biased adult sex ratios (≥73% male). Our 6-year study showed that 50.5% of critically endangered swift parrot nests had shared paternity although the birds remained socially monogamous. Shared paternity increased significantly with the local rate of predation on breeding females, suggesting that rates of shared paternity increased when the ASR became more biased. Nests that were not predated produced fewer fledglings as the local ASR became more male-biased possibly due to higher interference during nesting from unpaired males. Population viability analyses showed that part of the predicted decline in the swift parrot population is due to reduced reproductive success when paternity is shared. The models predicted that the population would decline by 89.4% over three generations if the birds maintained the lowest observed rate of shared paternity. This compares with predicted population reductions of 92.1-94.9% under higher rates of shared paternity. We conclude that biases in the ASR, in this case caused by sex-specific predation from an introduced predator, can lead to changes in the mating system and negative impacts on both individual fitness and long-term population viability.

Golden moth-inspired structures with a synergistic effect of interference, absorption and scattering.

We describe a new type of photonic material inspired by a Diachrysia chrysitis moth, whose nano-structured wings exhibit a prominent golden color. This is a layered photonic structure with a large refractive index contrast, whose alternating layers are rough at the nanoscale level. Theoretical analysis shows that the scattering and interference interact to enhance the local field within the layers and increase the absorption of the material, particularly in the UV-blue part of the spectrum. Theory is experimentally verified using holographically manufactured Bragg gratings in the dichromated-pullulan (DCP). Alternating air-pullulan layers are produced and held in place by sparsely separated nano-pillars. Air voids are filled with 20-100 nm diameter spherical nanoparticles which act as scatterers. Such materials, with a high refractive index contrast and nano-scale scatterers, are important for achieving large reflectance and a broad spectrum, with scattering as an additional mechanism for spectral control.

The importance of incorporating functional habitats into conservation planning for highly mobile species in dynamic systems.

The distribution of mobile species in dynamic systems can vary greatly over time and space. Estimating their population size and geographic range can be problematic and affect the accuracy of conservation assessments. Scarce data on mobile species and the resources they need can also limit the type of analytical approaches available to derive such estimates. We quantified change in availability and use of key ecological resources required for breeding for a critically endangered nomadic habitat specialist, the Swift Parrot (Lathamus discolor). We compared estimates of occupied habitat derived from dynamic presence-background (i.e., presence-only data) climatic models with estimates derived from dynamic occupancy models that included a direct measure of food availability. We then compared estimates that incorporate fine-resolution spatial data on the availability of key ecological resources (i.e., functional habitats) with more common approaches that focus on broader climatic suitability or vegetation cover (due to the absence of fine-resolution data). The occupancy models produced significantly (P < 0.001) smaller (up to an order of magnitude) and more spatially discrete estimates of the total occupied area than climate-based models. The spatial location and extent of the total area occupied with the occupancy models was highly variable between years (131 and 1498 km2 ). Estimates accounting for the area of functional habitats were significantly smaller (2-58% [SD 16]) than estimates based only on the total area occupied. An increase or decrease in the area of one functional habitat (foraging or nesting) did not necessarily correspond to an increase or decrease in the other. Thus, an increase in the extent of occupied area may not equate to improved habitat quality or function. We argue these patterns are typical for mobile resource specialists but often go unnoticed because of limited data over relevant spatial and temporal scales and lack of spatial data on the availability of key resources. Understanding changes in the relative availability of functional habitats is crucial to informing conservation planning and accurately assessing extinction risk for mobile resource specialists.

Exploiting the richest patch has a fitness pay-off for the migratory swift parrot.

1. Unlike philopatric migrants, the ecology of nomadic migrants is less well understood. This life-history strategy reflects responses to spatiotemporal variation in resource availability and the need to find resource rich patches to initiate breeding. The fitness consequences of movements between regions of patchily distributed resources can provide insight into ecology of all migrants and their responses to global change. 2. We link broad-scale data on spatiotemporal fluctuation in food availability to data on settlement patterns and fitness outcomes for a nomadic migrant, the endangered swift parrot Lathamus discolor. We test several predictions to determine whether facultative movements are adaptive for individual swift parrots in an environment where resources are patchily distributed over time and space. 3. Variation in the availability of swift parrot food resources across our study period was dramatic. As a consequence, swift parrots moved to breed wherever food was most abundant and did not resettle nesting regions in successive years when food availability declined. By moving, swift parrots exploited a variable food resource and reproduced successfully. 4. Exploiting the richest patches allowed swift parrots to maintain stable fitness outcomes between discrete breeding events at different locations. Unlike sedentary species that often produce few or lower quality offspring when food is scarce, nomadic migration buffered swift parrots against extreme environmental variation. 5. We provide the first detailed evidence that facultative movements and nomadic migration are adaptive for individuals in unpredictable environments. Our data support the widely held assumption that nomadic migration allows animals to escape resource limitation.

Influence of molecular marker type on estimating effective population size and other genetic parameters in a critically endangered parrot.

Genetics is a fast-moving field, and for conservation practitioners or ecologists, it can be bewildering. The choice of marker used in studies is fundamental; in the literature, preference has recently shifted from microsatellites to single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci. Understanding how marker type affects estimates of population genetic parameters is important in the context of conservation, especially because the accuracy of estimates has a bearing on the actions taken to protect threatened species. We compare parameter estimates between seven microsatellites, 3761 SNP loci, and a random subset of 100 SNPs for the exact same 324 individual swift parrots, Lathamus discolor, and also use 457 additional samples from subsequent years to compare SNP estimates. Both marker types estimated a lower H O than H E. We show that microsatellites and SNPs mainly indicate a lack of spatial genetic structure, except when a priori collection locations were used on the SNP data in a discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC). The 100-SNP subset gave comparable results to when the full dataset was used. Estimates of effective population size (N e) were comparable between markers when the same individuals were considered, but SNPs had narrower confidence intervals. This is reassuring because conservation assessments that rely on population genetic estimates based on a few microsatellites are unlikely to be nullified by the general shift toward SNPs in the literature. However, estimates between markers and datasets varied considerably when only adult samples were considered; hence, including samples of all age groups is recommended to be used when available. The estimated N e was higher for the full SNP dataset (2010-2019) than the smaller comparison data (2010-2015), which might be a better reflection of the species status. The lower precision of microsatellites may not necessarily be a barrier for most conservation applications; however, SNPs will improve confidence limits, which may be useful for practitioners.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) phytoaccumulation in urban areas by Platanus × acerifolia, Celtis australis, and Tilia grandifolia leaves and branches.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in the leaves and 1-year-old branches of three common tree species growing in a middle-sized city located in a moderate climate zone were estimated. For this purpose, PAH phytoaccumulation in Platanus × acerifolia, Celtis australis, and Tilia grandifolia species from highly urbanized, traffic congested, and highly PAH-contaminated streets was compared with trees from non-contaminated parks in the same urban core. The gathered data was used to define 17 PAH profiles, identify the main PAH pollution emission sources, and determine the organ and species specificity of PAHs accumulation. Due to the direct absorption of polluted air via stomata, the leaves accumulated up to 30% more PAHs compared to the 1-year-old branches. As expected, PAH concentrations were much higher in street trees, while heavy weight PAHs (with five and six rings) were accumulated in the highest concentrations. The highest foliar Σ17 PAH concentrations were detected in street-grown C. australis, followed by P. acerifolia and T. grandifolia (502.68, 488.45, and 339.47 ng g-1 dry weight (DW), respectively). The same pattern was noted for Σ17 PAHs in branches (414.89, 327.58, and 342.99 ng g-1 DW, respectively). Thus, T. grandifolia emerged as the least effective PAH sink as it accumulated up to ~ 40% less PAHs than P. acerifolia and C. australis leaves/branches. Among the 17 tracked PAHs, benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, and pyrene were found to have accumulated in the highest concentrations in all analyzed species irrespective of the site, and accounted for more than 50% of the total detected PAHs. Finally, a "black box" about species and organ specificity, as well as specific drivers that limit PAHs uptake capacity by trees, was opened, while this work provides insights into further PAH phytoremediation strategies.

Orange-bellied parrots.

Dejan Stojanovic and Robert Heinsohn introduce the Critically Endangered orange-bellied parrot from Australia.

The phenotypic costs of captivity.

The breeding of threatened species in captivity for release is a central tool in conservation biology. Given gloomy predictions for biodiversity trends in the Anthropocene, captive breeding will play an increasingly important role in preventing future extinctions. Relative to the wild, captive environments drastically alter selection pressures on animals. Phenotypic change in captive animals in response to these altered selection pressures can incur fitness costs post-release, jeopardising their potential contribution to population recovery. We explore the ways in which captive environments can hinder the expression of wild phenotypes. We also stress that the phenotypes of captive-bred animals differ from their wild counterparts in multiple ways that remain poorly understood. We propose five new research questions relating to the impact of captive phenotypes on reintroduction biology. With better use of monitoring and experimental reintroductions, a more robust evidence base should help inform adaptive management and minimise the phenotypic costs of captivity, improving the success of animal reintroductions.

The Genus Heterogynis Rambur, 1866 (Heterogynidae, Lepidoptera): Congruence of Molecular, Morphological and Morphometric Evidence Reveal New Species in Serbia.

The Heterogynidae are a small family of moths consisting of a single genus Heterogynis and sixteen described species distributed in the Mediterranean region. A species new to science, Heterogynis serbica sp. nov., is described from the locality of Srebrenac, Mt. Kopaonik, Republic of Serbia, Balkan Peninsula, by applying an integrative taxonomic approach using morpho-anatomical characteristics, wing morphometics and DNA barcoding. Male genitalia, scanning electron micrographs of adult male head anatomy, abdominal tergites/sternites, cocoons and habitats of the closely related species H. serbica sp. nov. and H. zikici are discussed and illustrated. Photographs of adult males and females, cocoons, plants in which the cocoons were found and habitats are shown. Importantly, marked differences in genital structure and other morphological characters were noted. These differences were confirmed with forewing morphometrics and COI-based DNA barcoding results. Additionally, DNA barcodes for H. serbica sp. nov. and H. zikici were compared against previously available data for the genus to evaluate the phylogenetic relationships. We conclude that deep, previously unknown and unexpected intrageneric morphological diversity exists in the genus Heterogynis.

Empirical and process-based models predict enhanced beech growth in European mountains under climate change scenarios: A multimodel approach.

Process-based models and empirical modelling techniques are frequently used to (i) explore the sensitivity of tree growth to environmental variables, and (ii) predict the future growth of trees and forest stands under climate change scenarios. However, modelling approaches substantially influence predictions of the sensitivity of trees to environmental factors. Here, we used tree-ring width (TRW) data from 1630 beech trees from a network of 70 plots established across European mountains to build empirical predictive growth models using various modelling approaches. In addition, we used 3-PG and Biome-BGCMuSo process-based models to compare growth predictions with derived empirical models. Results revealed similar prediction errors (RMSE) across models ranging between 3.71 and 7.54 cm2 of basal area increment (BAI). The models explained most of the variability in BAI ranging from 54 % to 87 %. Selected explanatory variables (despite being statistically highly significant) and the pattern of the growth sensitivity differed between models substantially. We identified only five factors with the same effect and the same sensitivity pattern in all empirical models: tree DBH, competition index, elevation, Gini index of DBH, and soil silt content. However, the sensitivity to most of the climate variables was low and inconsistent among the empirical models. Both empirical and process-based models suggest that beech in European mountains will, on average, likely experience better growth conditions under both 4.5 and 8.5 RCP scenarios. The process-based models indicated that beech may grow better across European mountains by 1.05 to 1.4 times in warmer conditions. The empirical models identified several drivers of tree growth that are not included in the current process-based models (e.g., different nutrients) but may have a substantial effect on final results, particularly if they are limiting factors. Hence, future development of process-based models may build upon our findings to increase their ability to correctly capture ecosystem dynamics.

Different tree-ring width sensitivities to satellite-based soil moisture from dry, moderate and wet pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) stands across a southeastern distribution margin.

Associations of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) radial growth with satellite-based soil moisture (SM) during the intensive tree growth period over a 30-year time span (1980-2010) were analyzed. This study included tree-ring width (TRW) chronologies from 22 stands located in four southeastern (SE) European countries (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria), which were grouped into three wetness groups (WGs): dry (<650 mm), moderate (650-750 mm), and wet (>750 mm), following the annual sum of precipitation. High correlation strengths during the intensive growth period-late spring and early summer months (April to June) was noted, which was opposite to the trend in late summer months. Variations in detrended TRW (TRWi) sensitivity to SM were also observed among the WGs. Specifically, the TRWi chronologies from the dry and wet WGs provided a greater number of significant correlations (p < 0.01) than trees from the moderate WG did. In wetter stands, TRWi correlated more negatively in the wettest (spring) months, while the correlation was weaker in summer months; these trends were opposite to those of trees growing in drier conditions that had the strongest responses to SM. A generalized additive mixed model (GAMM) based on 38 variables indicated that the fit for SM and radial growth was as strong as the fits for other traditionally measured parameters (temperature, precipitation, and river water level) and calculated drought indices (standardized precipitation index and the Ellenberg index) and TRW. Additionally, radial growth chronologies from drier sites had stronger fits with surrounding environmental factors. In conclusion, our findings suggest that SM can potentially be used as a reliable remote sensing indicator of the soil wetness in oak forests, which affects tree productivity and radial growth patterns and provides a new opportunity in dendrochronology research on larger scales.

European primary forest database v2.0.

Primary forests, defined here as forests where the signs of human impacts, if any, are strongly blurred due to decades without forest management, are scarce in Europe and continue to disappear. Despite these losses, we know little about where these forests occur. Here, we present a comprehensive geodatabase and map of Europe's known primary forests. Our geodatabase harmonizes 48 different, mostly field-based datasets of primary forests, and contains 18,411 individual patches (41.1 Mha) spread across 33 countries. When available, we provide information on each patch (name, location, naturalness, extent and dominant tree species) and the surrounding landscape (biogeographical regions, protection status, potential natural vegetation, current forest extent). Using Landsat satellite-image time series (1985-2018) we checked each patch for possible disturbance events since primary forests were identified, resulting in 94% of patches free of significant disturbances in the last 30 years. Although knowledge gaps remain, ours is the most comprehensive dataset on primary forests in Europe, and will be useful for ecological studies, and conservation planning to safeguard these unique forests.