Ensovibep, a SARS-CoV-2 antiviral designed ankyrin repeat protein, is safe and well tolerated in healthy volunteers: Results of a first-in-human, ascending single-dose Phase 1 study.

AIMS: This study aimed to assess safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) effects of ensovibep, a designed ankyrin repeat protein antiviral being evaluated as a COVID-19 treatment, in healthy volunteers in a first-in-human ascending single-dose study. METHODS: Subjects were dosed intravenously, in a randomized double-blinded manner, with either ensovibep at 3, 9 or 20 mg/kg or with placebo, and followed until Day 100. PK and safety were assessed throughout the study duration. Immunogenicity and PD via viral neutralization in serum were also assessed. RESULTS: All adverse events were of mild to moderate severity, and no serious adverse events were observed. One subject who received the 20-mg/kg dose presented with moderate hypersensitivity vasculitis 3 weeks after infusion, which fully resolved using standard procedures. In most subjects ensovibep showed expected mono-exponential decline with a half-life of around 2 weeks. Anti-drug antibodies were detected in 15 of 17 subjects, with the earliest onset detected on Day 29. Viral neutralization assays on subject serum showed effective viral neutralization over the first 3 weeks following dosing with titre values in a dose dependent manner. CONCLUSION: Ensovibep proved safe in this first-in-human safety study and exhibited PK and PD parameters consistent with the expected treatment period required for acute COVID-19 infection.

Antagonism of PDGF-BB suppresses subretinal neovascularization and enhances the effects of blocking VEGF-A.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) plays an important role in retinal and subretinal neovascularization (NV). Increased levels of HIF-1 cause increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) and current therapies for ocular NV focus on neutralizing VEGF-A, but there is mounting evidence that other HIF-1-responsive gene products may also participate. In this study, we tested the effect of a designed ankyrin repeat protein (DARPin) that selectively binds and antagonizes the hypoxia-regulated gene product PDGF-BB in three models of subretinal NV (relevant to neovascular age-related macular degeneration) and compared its effects to a DARPin that selectively antagonizes VEGF-A. Daily intraperitoneal injections of 10 mg/kg of the anti-PDGF-BB DARPin or 1 mg/kg of the anti-VEGF DARPin significantly suppressed subretinal NV from laser-induced rupture of Bruch's membrane. Injections of 1 mg/kg/day of the anti-PDGF-BB DARPin had no significant effect, but when combined with 1 mg/kg/day of the anti-VEGF-A DARPin there was greater suppression than injection of the anti-VEGF-A DARPin alone. In Vldlr (-/-) mice which spontaneously develop subretinal NV, intraocular injection of 1.85 µg of anti-PDGF-BB or anti-VEGF-A DARPin caused significant suppression of NV and when combined there was greater suppression than with either alone. The two DARPins also showed an additive effect in Tet/opsin/VEGF double transgenic mice, a particularly severe model of subretinal NV and exudative retinal detachment. In addition, intraocular injection of 1.85 µg of anti-PDGF-BB DARPin strongly suppressed ischemia-induced retinal NV, which is relevant to proliferative diabetic retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity. These data demonstrate that PDGF-BB is another hypoxia-regulated gene product that along with VEGF-A contributes to ocular NV and suppression of both provides an additive effect.

The Designed Ankyrin Repeat Protein Antiviral Ensovibep for Nonhospitalized Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019: Results From EMPATHY, a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Phase 2 Study.

Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was characterized by rapid evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants, affecting viral transmissibility, virulence, and response to vaccines/therapeutics. EMPATHY (NCT04828161), a phase 2 study, investigated the safety/efficacy of ensovibep, a multispecific designed ankyrin repeat protein (DARPin) with multivariant in vitro activity, in ambulatory patients with mild to moderate COVID-19. Methods: Nonhospitalized, symptomatic patients (N = 407) with COVID-19 were randomized to receive single-dose intravenous ensovibep (75, 225, or 600 mg) or placebo and followed until day 91. The primary endpoint was time-weighted change from baseline in log10 SARS-CoV-2 viral load through day 8. Secondary endpoints included proportion of patients with COVID-19-related hospitalizations, emergency room (ER) visits, and/or all-cause mortality to day 29; time to sustained clinical recovery to day 29; and safety to day 91. Results: Ensovibep showed superiority versus placebo in reducing log10 SARS-CoV-2 viral load; treatment differences versus placebo in time-weighted change from baseline were -0.42 (P = .002), -0.33 (P = .014), and -0.59 (P < .001) for 75, 225, and 600 mg, respectively. Ensovibep-treated patients had fewer COVID-19-related hospitalizations, ER visits, and all-cause mortality (relative risk reduction: 78% [95% confidence interval, 16%-95%]) and a shorter median time to sustained clinical recovery than placebo. Treatment-emergent adverse events occurred in 44.3% versus 54.0% of patients in the ensovibep and placebo arms; grade 3 events were consistent with COVID-19 morbidity. Two deaths were reported with placebo and none with ensovibep. Conclusions: All 3 doses of ensovibep showed antiviral efficacy and clinical benefits versus placebo and an acceptable safety profile in nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19.

Highly potent VEGF-A-antagonistic DARPins as anti-angiogenic agents for topical and intravitreal applications.

The next-generation ophthalmic anti-VEGF therapeutics must aim at being superior to the currently available agents with regard to potency and improved drug delivery, while still being stable and safe to use at elevated concentrations. We show here the generation of a set of highly potent VEGF-A antagonistic DARPins (designed ankyrin repeat proteins) delivering these properties. DARPins with single-digit picomolar affinity to human VEGF-A were generated using ribosome display selections. Specific and potent human VEGF-A binding was confirmed by ELISA and endothelial cell sprouting assays. Cross-reactivity with VEGF-A of several species was confirmed by ELISA. Intravitreally injected DARPin penetrated into the retina and reduced fluorescein extravasation in a rabbit model of vascular leakage. In addition, topical DARPin application was found to diminish corneal neovascularization in a rabbit suture model, and to suppress laser-induced neovascularization in a rat model. Even at elevated doses, DARPins were safe to use. The fact that several DARPins are highly active in various assays illustrates the favorable class behavior of the selected binders. Anti-VEGF-A DARPins thus represent a novel class of highly potent and specific drug candidates for the treatment of neovascular eye diseases in both the posterior and the anterior eye chamber.

First-in-Human Phase I Study of MP0250, a First-in-Class DARPin Drug Candidate Targeting VEGF and HGF, in Patients With Advanced Solid Tumors.

PURPOSE: A first-in-human study was performed with MP0250, a DARPin drug candidate. MP0250 specifically inhibits both vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) with the aim of disrupting the tumor microenvironment. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A multicenter, open-label, repeated-dose, phase I study was conducted to assess the safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of MP0250 in 45 patients with advanced solid tumors. In the dose-escalation part, 24 patients received MP0250 as a 3-hour infusion once every 2 weeks at five different dose levels (0.5-12 mg/kg). Once the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) was established, 21 patients were treated with a 1-hour infusion (n = 13, 8 mg/kg, once every 2 weeks and n = 8, 12 mg/kg, once every 3 weeks) of MP0250 in the dose confirmation cohorts. RESULTS: In the dose-escalation cohort, patients treated with 12 mg/kg MP0250 once every 2 weeks experienced dose-limiting toxicities. Therefore, MTD was 8 mg/kg once every 2 weeks or 12 mg/kg once every 3 weeks. The most common adverse events (AEs) were hypertension (69%), proteinuria (51%), and diarrhea and nausea (both 36%); hypoalbuminemia was reported in 24% of patients. Most AEs were consistent with inhibition of the VEGF and HGF pathways. Exposure was dose-proportional and sustained throughout the dosing period for all patients (up to 15 months). The half-life was about 2 weeks. Signs of single-agent antitumor activity were observed: 1 unconfirmed partial response with a time to progression of 23 weeks and 24 patients with stable disease, with the longest duration of 72 weeks and a median duration of 18 weeks. CONCLUSION: MP0250 is a first-in-class DARPin drug candidate with suitable tolerability and appropriate pharmacokinetic properties for further development in combination with other anticancer therapies.

Beyond Antibodies: The DARPin® Drug Platform.

The DARPin® drug platform was established with a vision to expand the medical use of biologics beyond what was possible with monoclonal antibodies. It is based on naturally occurring ankyrin repeat domains that are typically building blocks of multifunctional human proteins. The platform allows for the generation of diverse, well-behaved, multifunctional drug candidates. Recent clinical data illustrate the favorable safety profile of the first DARPin® molecules tested in patients. With the positive phase III results of the most advanced DARPin® drug candidate, abicipar, the DARPin® drug platform is potentially about to achieve its first marketing approval. This review highlights some of the key milestones and decisions encountered when transforming the DARPin® platform from an academic concept to a biotech drug pipeline engine.

Signal sequences directing cotranslational translocation expand the range of proteins amenable to phage display.

Even proteins that fold well in bacteria are frequently displayed poorly on filamentous phages. Low protein presentation on phage might be caused by premature cytoplasmic folding, leading to inefficient translocation into the periplasm. As translocation is an intermediate step in phage assembly, we tested the display levels of a range of proteins using different translocation pathways by employing different signal sequences. Directing proteins to the cotranslational signal recognition particle (SRP) translocation pathway resulted in much higher display levels than directing them to the conventional post-translational Sec translocation pathway. For example, the display levels of designed ankyrin-repeat proteins (DARPins) were improved up to 700-fold by simply exchanging Sec- for SRP-dependent signal sequences. In model experiments this exchange of signal sequences improved phage display from tenfold enrichment to >1,000-fold enrichment per phage display selection round. We named this method 'SRP phage display' and envision broad applicability, especially when displaying cDNA libraries or very stable and fast-folding proteins from libraries of alternative scaffolds.

DARPins: a new generation of protein therapeutics.

DARPins (designed ankyrin repeat proteins) are a novel class of binding molecules with the potential to overcome limitations of monoclonal antibodies, hence allowing novel therapeutic approaches. DARPins are small, single domain proteins (14 kDa) which can be selected to bind any given target protein with high affinity and specificity. These characteristics make them ideal agonistic, antagonistic or inhibitory drug candidates. Furthermore, DARPins can be engineered to carry various effector functions or combine multiple binding specificities, enabling completely new drug formats. Taken together, DARPins are a prominent member of the next generation of protein therapeutics with the potential to surpass existing antibody drugs.

DARPins: a true alternative to antibodies.

Designed ankyrin repeat proteins (DARPins) are a promising class of non-immunoglobulin proteins that can offer advantages over antibodies for target binding in drug discovery and drug development. DARPins have been successfully used, for example, for the inhibition of kinases, proteases and drug-exporting membrane proteins. DARPins specifically targeting the cancer marker HER2 have also been generated and were shown to function in both in vitro diagnostics and in vivo tumor targeting. DARPins are ideally suited for in vivo imaging or delivery of toxins or other therapeutic payloads because of their favorable molecular properties, including small size and high stability. The low-cost production in bacteria and the rapid generation of many target-specific DARPins make the DARPin approach useful for drug discovery. Additionally, DARPins can be easily generated in multispecific formats, offering the potential to target an effector DARPin to a specific organ or to target multiple receptors with one molecule composed of several DARPins.

High-affinity binders selected from designed ankyrin repeat protein libraries.

We report here the evolution of ankyrin repeat (AR) proteins in vitro for specific, high-affinity target binding. Using a consensus design strategy, we generated combinatorial libraries of AR proteins of varying repeat numbers with diversified binding surfaces. Libraries of two and three repeats, flanked by 'capping repeats,' were used in ribosome-display selections against maltose binding protein (MBP) and two eukaryotic kinases. We rapidly enriched target-specific binders with affinities in the low nanomolar range and determined the crystal structure of one of the selected AR proteins in complex with MBP at 2.3 A resolution. The interaction relies on the randomized positions of the designed AR protein and is comparable to natural, heterodimeric protein-protein interactions. Thus, our AR protein libraries are valuable sources for binding molecules and, because of the very favorable biophysical properties of the designed AR proteins, an attractive alternative to antibody libraries.

Half-life extension using serum albumin-binding DARPin® domains.

A long systemic half-life is key for therapeutic proteins. To that end we have generated serum albumin-binding designed ankyrin repeat domains. These domains bind serum albumin of different species with nanomolar affinities, and have significantly improved pharmacokinetic properties both in mouse and cynomolgus monkey compared to non-serum albumin-binding DARPin® domains. In addition, they exhibit high thermal stability and long storage stability, which is an essential feature for their use in drug development. Covalently linking a serum albumin-binding DARPin® domain to domains with other target specificities results in improvements of multiple orders of magnitude in exposure and terminal half-life, both in mouse and cynomolgus monkey. Pharmacokinetic assessment of such constructs revealed terminal half-life values ranging from 27 h to 80 h in mouse, and from 2.6 days to 20 days in cynomolgus monkey. Extrapolation by allometric scaling on these findings suggests terminal half-life values of 5-50 days in human, indicating that pharmacokinetic properties in the range of monoclonal antibodies can be achieved with DARPin® drug candidates. Such serum albumin-binding DARPin® domains are thus valuable tools for the generation of multi-functional drugs with an extended in vivo half-life.

MP0250, a VEGF and HGF neutralizing DARPin® molecule shows high anti-tumor efficacy in mouse xenograft and patient-derived tumor models.

BACKGROUND: The VEGF/VEGFR and the HGF/cMET pathways are key mediators of the interplay of tumor cells and their microenvironment. However, inhibition of VEGF has been shown to produce only limited clinical benefit and inhibition of the activation of cMET by HGF has not translated into clinical benefit in pivotal trials. MP0250, a DARPin® molecule that specifically inhibits both VEGF and HGF has been developed to explore the clinical potential of dual inhibition of these pathways. RESULTS: MP0250 binding to VEGF and HGF inhibited downstream signalling through VEGFR2 and cMET resulting in inhibition of proliferation of VEGF- and HGF-dependent cells. Antitumor activity was demonstrated in VEGF- and HGF-dependent xenograft and syngeneic models with activity superior to that of individual VEGF- and HGF-blocking DARPin® molecules. Combination therapy studies showed potentiation of the antitumor activity of chemotherapy and immunotherapy agents, including an anti-PD1 antibody. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Potency of MP0250 was assessed in cellular models and in a variety of xenograft models as monotherapy or in combination with standard-of-care drugs. CONCLUSIONS: Dual inhibition of VEGF and HGF by MP0250 produced powerful single agent and combination antitumor activity. This, together with increasing understanding of the role of the HGF/cMET pathway in resistance to VEGF (and other agents), supports testing of MP0250 in the clinic.

Design and characterization of MP0250, a tri-specific anti-HGF/anti-VEGF DARPin® drug candidate.

MP0250 is a multi-domain drug candidate currently being tested in clinical trials for the treatment of cancer. It comprises one anti-vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), one anti-hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and two anti-human serum albumin (HSA) DARPin® domains within a single polypeptide chain. While there is first clinical validation of a single-domain DARPin® drug candidate, little is known about DARPin® drug candidates comprising multiple domains. Here, we show that MP0250 can be expressed at 15 g/L in soluble form in E. coli high cell-density fermentation, it is stable in soluble/frozen formulation for 2 years as assessed by reverse phase HPLC, it has picomolar potency in inhibiting VEGF-A and HGF in ELISA and cellular assays, and its domains are simultaneously active as shown by surface plasmon resonance. The inclusion of HSA-binding DARPin® domains leads to a favorable pharmacokinetic profile in mouse and cynomolgus monkey, with terminal half-lives of ∼ 30 hours in mouse and ∼ 5 days in cynomolgus monkey. MP0250 is thus a highly potent drug candidate that could be particularly useful in oncology. Beyond MP0250, the properties of MP0250 indicate that multi-domain DARPin® proteins can be valuable next-generation drug candidates.

Designing repeat proteins: modular leucine-rich repeat protein libraries based on the mammalian ribonuclease inhibitor family.

We present a novel approach to design repeat proteins of the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) family for the generation of libraries of intracellular binding molecules. From an analysis of naturally occurring LRR proteins, we derived the concept to assemble repeat proteins with randomized surface positions from libraries of consensus repeat modules. As a guiding principle, we used the mammalian ribonuclease inhibitor (RI) family, which comprises cytosolic LRR proteins known for their extraordinary affinities to many RNases. By aligning the amino acid sequences of the internal repeats of human, pig, rat, and mouse RI, we derived a first consensus sequence for the characteristic alternating 28 and 29 amino acid residue A-type and B-type repeats. Structural considerations were used to replace all conserved cysteine residues, to define less conserved positions, and to decide where to introduce randomized amino acid residues. The so devised consensus RI repeat library was generated at the DNA level and assembled by stepwise ligation to give libraries of 2-12 repeats. Terminal capping repeats, known to shield the continuous hydrophobic core of the LRR domain from the surrounding solvent, were adapted from human RI. In this way, designed LRR protein libraries of 4-14 LRRs (equivalent to 130-415 amino acid residues) were obtained. The biophysical analysis of randomly chosen library members showed high levels of soluble expression in the Escherichia coli cytosol, monomeric behavior as characterized by gel-filtration, and alpha-helical CD spectra, confirming the success of our design approach.

Designing repeat proteins: well-expressed, soluble and stable proteins from combinatorial libraries of consensus ankyrin repeat proteins.

We describe an efficient way to generate combinatorial libraries of stable, soluble and well-expressed ankyrin repeat (AR) proteins. Using a combination of sequence and structure consensus analyses, we designed a 33 amino acid residue AR module with seven randomized positions having a theoretical diversity of 7.2x10(7). Different numbers of this module were cloned between N and C-terminal capping repeats, i.e. ARs designed to shield the hydrophobic core of stacked AR modules. In this manner, combinatorial libraries of designed AR proteins consisting of four to six repeats were generated, thereby potentiating the theoretical diversity. All randomly chosen library members were expressed in soluble form in the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli in amounts up to 200 mg per 1 l of shake-flask culture. Virtually pure proteins were obtained in a single purification step. The designed AR proteins are monomeric and display CD spectra identical with those of natural AR proteins. At the same time, our AR proteins are highly thermostable, with T(m) values ranging from 66 degrees C to well above 85 degrees C. Thus, our combinatorial library members possess the properties required for biotechnological applications. Moreover, the favorable biophysical properties and the modularity of the AR fold may account, partly, for the abundance of natural AR proteins.

Folding of a designed simple ankyrin repeat protein.

Ankyrin repeats (AR) are 33-residue motifs containing a beta-turn, followed by two alpha-helices connected by a loop. AR occur in tandem arrangements and stack side-by-side to form elongated domains involved in very different cellular tasks. Recently, consensus libraries of AR repeats were constructed. Protein E1_5 represents a member of the shortest library, and consists of only a single consensus repeat flanked by designed N- and C-terminal capping repeats. Here we present a biophysical characterization of this AR domain. The protein is compactly folded, as judged from the heat capacity of the native state and from the specific unfolding enthalpy and entropy. From spectroscopic data, thermal and urea-induced unfolding can be modeled by a two-state transition. However, scanning calorimetry experiments reveal a deviation from the two-state behavior at elevated temperatures. Folding and unfolding at 5 degrees C both follow monoexponential kinetics with k(folding) = 28 sec(-1) and k(unfolding) = 0.9 sec(-1). Kinetic and equilibrium unfolding parameters at 5 degrees C agree very well. We conclude that E1_5 folds in a simple two-state manner at low temperatures while equilibrium intermediates become populated at higher temperatures. A chevron-plot analysis indicates that the protein traverses a very compact transition state along the folding/unfolding pathway. This work demonstrates that a designed minimal ankyrin repeat protein has the thermodynamic and kinetic properties of a compactly folded protein, and explains the favorable properties of the consensus framework.

A novel strategy to design binding molecules harnessing the modular nature of repeat proteins.

Repeat proteins, such as ankyrin or leucine-rich repeat proteins, are ubiquitous binding molecules, which occur, unlike antibodies, intra- and extracellularly. Their unique modular architecture features repeating structural units (repeats), which stack together to form elongated repeat domains displaying variable and modular target-binding surfaces. Based on this modularity, we developed a novel strategy to generate combinatorial libraries of polypeptides with highly diversified binding specificities. This strategy includes the consensus design of self-compatible repeats displaying variable surface residues and their random assembly into repeat domains. We envision that such repeat protein libraries will be highly valuable sources for novel binding molecules especially suitable for intracellular applications.

Treatment of exudative age-related macular degeneration with a designed ankyrin repeat protein that binds vascular endothelial growth factor: a phase I/II study.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the safety, tolerability and bioactivity of ascending doses of MP0112, a designed ankyrin repeat protein (DARPin) that binds with high affinity to vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), in treatment-naive patients with exudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD). DESIGN: Phase I/II, open-label, multicenter, dose-escalation study. METHODS: Patients were to receive a single intravitreal injection of MP0112 at doses ranging from 0.04 to 3.6 mg and be monitored for 16 weeks for safety, efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and dose response. RESULTS: Altogether, 32 patients received a single injection of MP0112. The maximum tolerated dose was 1.0 mg because of a case of endophthalmitis in the 2.0 mg cohort. Drug-related adverse events were reported by 13 (41%) of 32 patients; they included ocular inflammation in 11 patients (7 mild, 4 moderate in severity). Visual acuity scores were stable or improved compared with baseline for ≥4 weeks following injection; both retinal thickness and fluorescein angiography leakage decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Rescue therapy was administered to 20 (91%) of 22 patients who received 0.04-0.4 mg MP0112 compared with 4 of 10 (40%) patients who received 1.0 or 2.0 mg. Of patients in the higher-dose cohorts who did not require rescue treatment, 83% (5/6) maintained reductions in central retinal thickness through week 16. CONCLUSIONS: A single injection of 1.0 or 2.0 mg MP0112 resulted in mean decreases in retinal thickness and leakage area despite ocular inflammation. Larger-scale studies are warranted to confirm these observations.

Treatment of diabetic macular edema with a designed ankyrin repeat protein that binds vascular endothelial growth factor: a phase I/II study.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the safety and bioactivity of MP0112, a designed ankyrin repeat protein (DARPin) that specifically binds vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in patients with diabetic macular edema (DME). DARPins are a novel class of proteins selected for specific, high-affinity binding to a target protein. DESIGN: Phase I/II, open-label, multicenter dose-escalation trial. METHODS: After a single intravitreal injection of MP0112, the main outcomes were safety assessments, aqueous MP0112 levels, change in best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), and foveal thickness measured by optical coherence tomography. Six cohorts were planned, but only 3 were enrolled (0.04, 0.15, 0.4 mg), because a maximally tolerated dose of 1.0 mg was identified in a parallel age-related macular degeneration trial. RESULTS: Median aqueous concentration of MP0112 was 555 nM 1 week and >10 nM in 3 of 4 patients 12 weeks post injection of 0.4 mg. Median BCVA improvement at week 12 was 4, 6, and 10 letters in cohorts 1, 2, and 3. Ocular inflammation was observed in 11 patients (61%) and was severe in 1. High-resolution chromatography separated proinflammatory impurities from MP0112, resulting in a new formulation. CONCLUSIONS: A single intraocular injection of 0.4 mg MP0112 resulted in levels above the half-maximal inhibitory concentration and neutralization of VEGF in aqueous humor for 8-12 weeks. Despite inflammation in several patients, there was prolonged edema reduction and improvement in vision in several patients. The source of the inflammation was eliminated from a new preparation that is being tested in an ongoing clinical trial.

Efficient tumor targeting with high-affinity designed ankyrin repeat proteins: effects of affinity and molecular size.

Slow-clearing, tumor-targeting proteins such as monoclonal antibodies typically exhibit high tumor accumulation but low tissue contrast, whereas intermediate-sized proteins such as scFvs show faster clearance but only moderate tumor accumulation. For both, tumor targeting does not seem to improve further above an optimal affinity. We show here that with very small high-affinity proteins such as designed ankyrin repeat proteins (DARPins), these limits can be overcome. We have systematically investigated the influence of molecular mass and affinity on tumor accumulation with DARPins with specificity for HER2 in SK-OV-3.ip nude mouse xenografts. DARPins with a mass of 14.5 kDa and affinities between 270 nmol/L and 90 pmol/L showed a strong correlation of tumor accumulation with affinity to HER2, with the highest affinity DARPin reaching 8% ID/g after 24 hours and 6.5% ID/g after 48 hours (tumor-to-blood ratio >60). Tumor autoradiographs showed good penetration throughout the tumor mass. Genetic fusion of two DARPins (30 kDa) resulted in significantly lower tumor accumulation, similar to values observed for scFvs, whereas valency had no influence on accumulation. PEGylation of the DARPins increased the circulation half-life, leading to higher tumor accumulation (13.4% ID/g after 24 hours) but lower tumor-to-blood ratios. Affinity was less important for tumor uptake of the PEGylated constructs. We conclude that two regimes exist for delivering high levels of drug to a tumor: small proteins with very high affinity, such as unmodified DARPins, and large proteins with extended half-life, such as PEGylated DARPins, in which the importance of affinity is less pronounced.