Simultaneous Determination and Risk Assessment of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Artemisia capillaris Thunb. by UPLC-MS/MS Together with Chemometrics.

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are natural toxins found in some genera of the family Asteraceae. However, it has not been reported whether PAs are present in the widely used Asteraceae plant Artemisia capillaris Thunb. (A. capillaris). The purpose of this study was to establish a sensitive and rapid UPLC-MS/MS method together with chemometrics analysis for simultaneous determination and risk assessment of PAs in A. capillaris. The developed UPLC-MS/MS method was validated and was confirmed to display desirable high selectivity, precision and accuracy. Risk assessment was conducted according to the European Medicines Agency (EMA) guideline. Chemometrics analysis was performed with hierarchical clustering analysis and principal component analysis to characterize the differences between PAs of A. capillaris. Finally, PAs were found in 29 out of 30 samples and at least two were detected in each sample, besides, more than half of the samples exceeded the EMA baseline. Nevertheless, the chemometrics results suggested that the PAs contents of A. capillaris from different sources varied significantly. The method was successfully applied to the detection and risk evaluation of PAs-containing A. capillaris for the first time. This study should provide a meaningful reference for the rational and safe use of A. capillaris.

Microbe-mediate transformation of echinocystic acid by whole cells of filamentous fungus Cunninghamella blakesleana CGMCC 3.910.

Structural modification of echinocystic acid (EA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid with wide spread biological activities was investigated by microbial transformation. Microbe-mediate transformation of EA was carried out by filamentous fungus Cunninghamella blakesleana CGMCC 3.910. Four metabolites 3ß, 7ß, 16α-trihydroxy-olean-12-en-28-oic acid (EA-2); 3ß, 7ß, 16ß,19ß-tetrahydroxy-olean-12-en-28-oic acid (EA-3); 3ß, 7ß, 16α, 21ß-tetrahydroxy-olean-12-en-28-oic acid (EA-4); 3ß, 7ß, 16α-trihydroxy-olean-11, 13(18)-dien-28-oic acid (EA-5) were produced. Structures of transformed products were elucidated by 1D and 2D NMR and HR-MS data. EA-3 and EA-4 were new compounds.

Microbial transformation of pseudoprotodioscin by Gibberella fujikuroi.

Three new (6, 9, and 12) and nine known steroidal saponins were obtained from the fermentation broth of pseudoprotodioscin (PPD) incubated with a fungus Gibberella fujikuroi CGMCC 3.4663. Structures of the metabolites were elucidated by 1-D (1H, 13C), 2-D (HMBC, HSQC, NOESY) NMR, and HR-MS analyses. The biotransformation pathway of pseudoprotodioscin by Gibberella fujikuroi CGMCC 3.4663 was proposed. Compounds 1-11 were tested in vitro for their cytotoxic activities against two human cancer cell lines (HepG2 and Hela). Compounds 1, 6, 9, and 10 exhibited cytotoxic activity against HepG2 cells. Compound 10 exhibited cytotoxicity to Hela cells.

Generation and analysis of the Rett syndrome-associated MeCP2- null rat model.

MeCP2 mutations are associated with the Rett syndrome (RTT). Currently, there is an urgent need for new animal models for RTT as the existing MeCP2 knockout mouse models fail to fully mimic the pathogenesis and symptoms of RTT patients. In order to investigate the role of MeCP2 in brain development and RTT pathogenesis, we aimed to set up the MeCP2-null rat model using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology. Firstly we constructed the MeCP2 targeting vector and then microinjected Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA mixtures into fertilized ova of SD rats. The sgRNA was designed to target the exon 2 of MeCP2. Next, knockout rats were confirmed using DNA sequencing and Western blotting. Lastly, phenotypes including growth and behaviors of MeCP2 knockout rats were analyzed. The results indicated that the MeCP2 knockout rats showed body weight loss, anxiety tendency and cognitive deficits. The MeCP2-null rat model established in this study recapitulates the major symptoms of RTT patients and provides an alternative tool for future studies of MeCP2 functions.

Unusual microbial lactonization and hydroxylation of asiatic acid by Umbelopsis isabellina.

Asiatic acid (1) is a natural triterpenoid isolated from Centella asiatica. This paper reports the microbial transformation of asiatic acid by an endophytic fungus Umbelopsis isabellina to obtain derivatives potentially useful for further studies. Incubation of asiatic acid with U. isabellina afforded two derivatives 2α,3ß,7ß, 23-tetrahydroxyurs-12-ene-28-oic acid (2) and 2α,3ß,7ß,23-tetrahydroxyurs-11-ene-28,13-lactone (3). The structures of these compounds were elucidated by spectral data. Compound 3 has formed an unusual lactone. These two products are new compounds. The possible transformation passway was also discussed.

Bioactive secondary metabolites from endophytic strains of Neocamarosporium betae collected from desert plants.

Endophytic fungi from desert plants belong to a unique microbial community that has been scarcely investigated chemically and could be a new resource for bioactive natural products. In this study, 13 secondary metabolites (1-13) with diverse carbon skeletons, including a novel polyketide (1) with a unique 5,6-dihydro-4H,7H-2,6-methanopyrano[4,3-d][1,3]dioxocin-7-one ring system and three undescribed polyketides (2, 7, and 11), were obtained from the endophytic fungus Neocamarosporium betae isolated from two desert plant species. Different approaches, including HR-ESI-MS, UV spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, NMR, and CD, were used to determine the planar and absolute configurations of the compounds. The possible biosynthetic pathways were proposed based on the structural characteristics of compounds 1-13. Compounds 1, 3, 4, and 9 exhibited strong cytotoxicity toward HepG2 cells compared with the positive control. Several metabolites (2, 4-5, 7-9, and 11-13) were phytotoxic to foxtail leaves. The results support the hypothesis that endophytic fungi from special environments, such as desert areas, produce novel bioactive secondary metabolites.

Biotransformation of ursolic acid by an endophytic fungus from medicinal plant Huperzia serrata.

Endophytic fungi were used not only for their producing bioactive products but also for their ability to transform natural compounds. An endophytic fungus, isolated from medicinal plant Huperzia serrata, was identified as Umbelopsis isabellina based on the internal transcribed spacer of ribosomal DNA (rDNA-ITS) region. It was used to transform ursolic acid (1), a pentacyclic triterpene. Incubation of ursolic acid with U. isabellina afforded three products, 3ß-hydroxy-urs-11-en-28,13-lactone (2), 3ß,7ß-dihydroxy-urs-11-en-28,13-lactone (3), 1ß,3ß-dihydroxy-urs-11-en-28,13-lactone (4). Although product 2 was a known compound, it was first obtained by microbial transformation. Products 3 and 4 were new compounds. The structural elucidation of the three compounds was achieved mainly by the 1D- and 2D-NMR, MS, IR data. The endophytic fungus U. isabellina can hydroxyate the C12-C13 double bond at position 13 of ursolic acid 1 and form a five-member lactone effectively. In the meantime, this fungus can also introduce the hydroxyl group at C-1 or C-7 of ursolic acid 1.

Microbial transformation of diosgenin by filamentous fungus Cunninghamella echinulata.

Microbial transformation of diosgenin (1) by suspended-cell cultures of the filamentous fungus Cunninghamella echinulata CGMCC 3.2000 was investigated. Incubation of the substrate diosgenin (1) with this fungus led to the isolation of three products: two known compounds, (25R)-spirost-5-en-3ß,7ß,12ß-triol and (25R)-spirost-5-en-3ß,7ß,11α-triol, and a new compound (25R)-spirost-5-en-3ß,7α,11α-triol. The structural elucidations of the three compounds were achieved mainly by the MS, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic methods and comparison with known compounds. C. echinulata CGMCC 3.2000 has not been used before in the biotransformation of diosgenin.

Two new echinocystic acid derivatives catalyzed by filamentous fungus Gliocladium roseum CGMCC 3.3657.

Biotransformation of Echinocystic acid (EA,1) using G. roseum CGMCC 3.3657 has been investigated, which leads to the isolation and identification of two novel Echinocystic acid derivatives, 4, 16α-dihydroxy-3,4-seco-olean-12-en-3,28-dioic acid (2) and 16α-hydroxy, A-homo-3α-oxa-olean-12-en-3-one-28-oic acid (3). Their structures have been elucidated by analysis of spectroscopic data. This biocatalysis could serve as an efficient tool complementary to classical chemical methods for the transformation of EA.

Biocatalysis of ursolic acid by the fungus Gliocladium roseum CGMCC 3.3657 and resulting anti-HCV activity.

Biocatalysis of ursolic acid (UA 1) by Gliocladium roseum CGMCC 3.3657 was investigated. Baeyer-Villiger oxidation was found to occur during the reaction. Four metabolites were isolated from the cultures and their structures were identified as 21-oxo,A-homo-3a-oxa-urs-12-en-3-one-28-oic acid (2), 21-oxo-3,4-seco-ursan-4(23),12-dien-3,28-dioic acid (3), 21ß-hydroxyl-A-homo-3a-oxa-urs-12-en-3-one-28-oic acid (4) and 21ß-hydroxyl-3,4-seco-ursan-4(23),12-dien-3,28-dioic acid (5), based on their NMR and MS spectral data. All of the four metabolites were new and their anti-HCV activity was tested. Their biotransformation pathway was also proposed.

Biotransformation of ursolic acid by Syncephalastrum racemosum CGMCC 3.2500 and anti-HCV activity.

Microbial transformation of ursolic acid (UA, 3ß-hydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid, 1) by filamentous fungus Syncephalastrum racemosum CGMCC 3.2500 was conducted. Five metabolites 3ß, 7ß, 21ß-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (2); 3ß, 21ß-dihydroxy-urs-11-en-28-oic acid-13-lactone (3); 1ß, 3ß, 21ß-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (4); 3ß, 7ß, 21ß-trihydroxy-urs-1-en-28-oic acid-13-lactone (5); and 21-oxo-1ß, 3ß-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (6) were afforded. Elucidation of the structures of these metabolites was primarily based on 1D and 2D NMR and HR-MS data. Metabolite 2 was a new compound. In addition, the anti-HCV activity of compounds 1-6 was evaluated.

Elucidation of the pharmacophore of echinocystic acid, a new lead for blocking HCV entry.

To elucidate the pharmacophore of echinocystic acid (EA), an oleanane-type triterpene displaying substantial inhibitory activity on HCV entry, two microbial strains, Rhizopus chinensis CICC 3043 and Alternaria alternata AS 3.4578, were utilized to modify the chemical structure of EA. Eight new metabolites with regio- and stereo-selective introduction of hydroxyl and lactone groups at various inert carbon positions were obtained. The anti-HCV entry activity of the metabolites 2-13, along with their parental compound EA and other analogs 14-15, were evaluated. Most of the metabolites showed no improvement but detrimental effect on potency except compound 5 and 6, which showed similar and even a litter higher anti-HCV entry activity than that of EA. The results demonstrated that ring A, B, C and the left side of ring E of EA are highly conserved, while ring D and the right side of ring E of EA are flexible. Introduction of a hydroxyl group at C-16 enhanced the triterpene potency. Further analysis indicated that the hemolytic effect of EA disappeared upon such modifications.

Multihydroxylation of ursolic acid by Pestalotiopsis microspora isolated from the medicinal plant Huperzia serrata.

The structural modification of ursolic acid by an endophytic fungus Pestalotiopsis microspora, isolated from medicinal plant Huperzia serrata was reported for the first time. The structure diversity was very important for the SAR study of ursolic acid and its derivatives. Incubation of ursolic acid 1 with P. microspora afforded four metabolites: 3-oxo-15α, 30-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (2), 3ß, 15α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (3), 3ß, 15α, 30- trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (4) and 3,4-seco-ursan-4,30-dihydroxy-12-en-3,28-dioic acid (5). All products were new compounds and their structures elucidation was mainly based on the spectroscopic data.

Regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation of taxoids by filamentous fungi.

Paclitaxel (Taxol), is one of the most promising chemotherapeutic agents developed for cancer treatment in past two decades. Microorganisms such as filamentous fungi are known to perform regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation of taxoids. Herein, we describe highly regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation at the 1beta and 9alpha positions of the taxane skeleton. Such hydroxylation reactions proceed readily for the taxadienes as substrates rather than taxoids having an oxetane ring. The presence of different oxygen substituents on the taxane nucleus, such as 5-acetoxy, has a significant effect on the selectivity and yield of the hydroxylation catalyzed by the microbial oxidases.

Identification of small molecule synthetic inhibitors of DNA polymerase beta by NMR chemical shift mapping.

DNA polymerase beta (beta-pol) plays a central role in repair of damaged DNA bases by base excision repair (BER) pathways. A predominant phenotype of beta-pol null mouse fibroblasts is hypersensitivity to the DNA-methylating agent methyl methanesulfonate. Residues in the 8-kDa domain of beta-pol that seem to interact with a known natural product beta-pol inhibitor, koetjapic acid, were identified by NMR chemical shift mapping. The data implicate the binding pocket as the hydrophobic cleft between helix-2 and helix-4, which provides the DNA binding and deoxyribose phosphate lyase activities of the enzyme. Nine structurally related synthetic compounds, containing aromatic or other hydrophobic groups in combination with two carboxylate groups, were then tested. They were found to bind to the same or a very similar region on the surface of the enzyme. The ability of these compounds to potentiate methyl methanesulfonate cytotoxicity, an indicator of cellular BER capacity, in wild-type and beta-pol null mouse fibroblasts, was next ascertained. The most active and beta-pol-specific of these agents, pamoic acid, was further characterized and found to be an inhibitor of the deoxyribose phosphate lyase and DNA polymerase activities of purified beta-pol on a BER substrate. Our results illustrate that NMR-based mapping techniques can be used in the design of small molecule enzyme inhibitors including those with potential use in a clinical setting.