Development of brainstem-evoked responses in congenital auditory deprivation.

To compare the development of the auditory system in hearing and completely acoustically deprived animals, naive congenitally deaf white cats (CDCs) and hearing controls (HCs) were investigated at different developmental stages from birth till adulthood. The CDCs had no hearing experience before the acute experiment. In both groups of animals, responses to cochlear implant stimulation were acutely assessed. Electrically evoked auditory brainstem responses (E-ABRs) were recorded with monopolar stimulation at different current levels. CDCs demonstrated extensive development of E-ABRs, from first signs of responses at postnatal (p.n.) day 3 through appearance of all waves of brainstem response at day 8 p.n. to mature responses around day 90 p.n.. Wave I of E-ABRs could not be distinguished from the artifact in majority of CDCs, whereas in HCs, it was clearly separated from the stimulus artifact. Waves II, III, and IV demonstrated higher thresholds in CDCs, whereas this difference was not found for wave V. Amplitudes of wave III were significantly higher in HCs, whereas wave V amplitudes were significantly higher in CDCs. No differences in latencies were observed between the animal groups. These data demonstrate significant postnatal subcortical development in absence of hearing, and also divergent effects of deafness on early waves II-IV and wave V of the E-ABR.

Cortical representation of interaural time difference in congenital deafness.

Binaural cues are required for localization of sound sources. In the present paper, representation of binaural cues has been investigated in the adult auditory cortex. Hearing and congenitally deaf cats were stimulated through binaural cochlear implants and unit responses were collected in the subregion of field A1 showing the largest amplitudes of evoked local field potentials. Sensitivity to interaural time difference (ITD) in the range from -600 to 600 micros was tested at intensities of 0-10 dB above hearing threshold. Template ITD functions were fitted to the data and parameters of ITD functions were compared between deaf and hearing animals. In deaf animals, fewer units responded to binaural stimulation, and those that responded had smaller maximal evoked firing rate. The fit to the template ITD functions was significantly worse in deaf animals, and the modulation depth in ITD functions was smaller, demonstrating a decrease in ITD sensitivity. With increasing binaural levels, hearing controls demonstrated systematic changes in ITD functions not found in deaf animals. Bimodal responses, likely related to precedence effect, were rare in deaf animals. The data demonstrate that despite some rudimentary sensitivity to interaural timing, cortical representation of ITDs is substantially altered by congenital auditory deprivation.

Recruitment of the auditory cortex in congenitally deaf cats by long-term cochlear electrostimulation.

In congenitally deaf cats, the central auditory system is deprived of acoustic input because of degeneration of the organ of Corti before the onset of hearing. Primary auditory afferents survive and can be stimulated electrically. By means of an intracochlear implant and an accompanying sound processor, congenitally deaf kittens were exposed to sounds and conditioned to respond to tones. After months of exposure to meaningful stimuli, the cortical activity in chronically implanted cats produced field potentials of higher amplitudes, expanded in area, developed long latency responses indicative of intracortical information processing, and showed more synaptic efficacy than in naïve, unstimulated deaf cats. The activity established by auditory experience resembles activity in hearing animals.

Electric-acoustic interactions in the hearing cochlea: single fiber recordings.

The present study investigates interactions of simultaneous electric and acoustic stimulation in single auditory nerve fibers in normal hearing cats. First, the auditory nerve was accessed with a microelectrode and response areas of single nerve fibers were determined for acoustic stimulation. Second, response thresholds to extracochlear sinusoidal electric stimulation using ball electrodes positioned at the round window were measured. Third, interactions that occurred with combined electric-acoustic stimulation were investigated in two areas: (1) the spectral domain (frequency response areas) and (2) the temporal domain (phase-locking to each stimulus) at moderate stimulus intensities (electric: 6 dB re threshold, acoustic: 20-40 dB re threshold at the characteristic frequency, CF). For fibers responding to both modalities responses to both electric and acoustic stimulation could be clearly identified. CFs, thresholds, and bandwidth (Q10dB) of acoustic responses were not significantly affected by simultaneous electric stimulation. Phase-locking of electric responses decreased in the presence of acoustic stimulation. Indication for electric stimulation of inner hair cells with 125 and 250 Hz were observed. However, these did not disturb the acoustic receptive fields of auditory nerve fibers. There was a trade-off between these responses when the intensities of the stimulation were varied: Relatively more intense stimulation dominated less intense stimulation. The scarcity of interaction between the different stimulus modalities demonstrates the ability of electric-acoustic stimulation to transfer useful information through both stimulation channels at the same time despite cochlear electrophonic effects. Application of 30 Hz electric stimulation resulted in a strong suppression of acoustic activity in the anodic phase of the stimulus. An electric stimulation like this might thus be used to control acoustic responses. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled .

Monitoring of anaesthesia in neurophysiological experiments.

Cortical activity can be substantially changed by the type of anaesthetic used, and by its dose level. For easy monitoring of depth of anaesthesia we describe the changes in electroencephalogram and electrocardiogram accompanying changes in depth of anaesthesia in the cat. Anaesthesia was induced by the volatile anaesthetic isoflurane. The high-frequency components (around 30 Hz) in the electroencephalogram disappear in deep anaesthesia. The electrocardiogram also shows substantial changes in contamination due to muscle fasciculations with anaesthesia level. Fasciculations appear as noise in the electrocardiogram. The amplitude of the electrical muscle activity contaminating the ECG can be easily used for the maintainance of a constant level of anaesthesia during a neurophysiological experiment.

Postnatal cortical development in congenital auditory deprivation.

The study investigates early postnatal development of local field potentials (LFPs) in the primary auditory cortex of hearing and congenitally deaf cats. In hearing cats, LFPs elicited by electrical intracochlear stimulation demonstrated developmental changes in mid-latency range, including reductions in peak and onset latencies of individual waves and a maturation of their shape and latencies during the first 2 months of life. In long latency range (>80 ms), the P(1)/N(1) response appeared after the fourth week of life and further increased in amplitude and decreased in latency, reaching mature shapes between the fourth and sixth months after birth (p.n.). Cortical activated areas became increasingly smaller during the first 3 months of life, reaching mature values at the fourth month p.n. The layer-specific pattern of synaptic activity matured 4 months p.n. In congenitally deaf cats, the developmental pattern was different. The lowest cortical LFP thresholds were significantly smaller than in hearing controls, demonstrating a "hypersensitivity" to sensory inputs. The development of N(b) waves was delayed and altered and the long latency responses became smaller than in controls at the second and third months. The activated areas remained smaller than in controls until the third month, then they increased rapidly and exceeded the activated areas of age-matched controls. From the fourth month on, the activated areas decreased again and smaller synaptic currents were found in deaf cats than in controls. The presented data demonstrate that functional development of the auditory cortex critically depends on auditory experience.

Functional organization of the auditory cortex in a native Chilean rodent (Octodon degus).

The tonotopic organization of primary auditory cortex (AI) and surrounding secondary regions has been studied in the Octodon degus using standard microelectrode mapping techniques. The results confirm and extend previous observations made in other species. The tonotopic organization of the largest field (AI) apparently covered the hearing range of O. degus. Low tonal frequencies were represented rostroventrally and high frequencies caudally, with isofrequency contours orientated dorsoventrally in a ventrocaudal slant. There were additional tonotopic representations adjacent to AI. Rostral to AI, a small field with a tonotopic gradient reversed with respect to that in AI (mirror image representation) was mapped and termed rostral auditory field (R). Best frequencies (BF's) in a range from 0.1-30.0 kHz were found in AI and R, with higher spatial resolution for the representation of lower BF's up to 10.0 kHz. Responses obtained in AI as well as in R were strong, with narrow tuning and short latencies. Caudal to AI, two small additional, tonotopically organized fields, the dorsoposterior field (DP) and the ventroposterior field (VP), could be distinguished. In fields VP and DP, high BF's were situated rostrally, adjacent to the high frequency representation in AI. Low frequency representations were found in caudal part of DP and VP fields. Responses to tone burst within DP and VP were mostly weak, with longer latencies and broader tuning compared to those found in AI and R.

Functional organization of auditory cortex in the mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus). I. Electrophysiological mapping of frequency representation and distinction of fields.

The frequency representation within the auditory cortex of the anaesthetized Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) was studied using standard microelectrode (essentially multiunit) mapping techniques. A large tonotopically organized primary auditory field (AI) was identified. High best frequencies (BFs) were represented rostrally and low BFs caudally along roughly dorsoventrally oriented isofrequency contours. Additional tonotopic representations were found adjacent to AI. Rostral to AI was a smaller field with a complete tonotopic gradient reversed with respect to that in AI (mirror image representation) and was termed the anterior auditory field (AAF). BFs in the range from 0.1 to 43 kHz, apparently covering the hearing range of the Mongolian gerbil, were found in AI and AAF. Units in these two core fields responded to narrow frequency ranges with short latencies. Ventral to the common high-frequency border to AAF and AI, a rapid transition to very low BFs suggested the presence of a ventral field (V). Caudal to AI two small tonotopically organized fields were identified, a dorsoposterior field (DP) and a ventroposterior field (VP). The VP showed a tonotopic organization mirror imaged to that of AI, i.e. low frequencies were represented rostrally near the caudal border of AI, and high frequencies caudally. The DP showed a concentric frequency organization with high BFs located in the centre. Units in DP and VP fired less strongly, with considerably longer latencies, and responded to a broader range of frequencies than units in AI and AAF. Dorsocaudal to AI a dorsal field (D) was identified, harbouring units that responded to very broad ranges of frequencies. A tonotopic organization of field D could not be discerned. In the border region of AI and D, low-frequency responses were similar to those found in parts of AI and AAF, but without a clear-cut tonotopic organization. This region was termed Ald. The two core fields AI and AAF appeared to be located within the koniocortex, while the remaining fields lay outside. Our data show that the organization of the gerbil auditory cortex is highly elaborate, with parcellation into fields as complex as in cat or primates.

Hearing after congenital deafness: central auditory plasticity and sensory deprivation.

The congenitally deaf cat suffers from a degeneration of the inner ear. The organ of Corti bears no hair cells, yet the auditory afferents are preserved. Since these animals have no auditory experience, they were used as a model for congenital deafness. Kittens were equipped with a cochlear implant at different ages and electro-stimulated over a period of 2.0-5.5 months using a monopolar single-channel compressed analogue stimulation strategy (VIENNA-type signal processor). Following a period of auditory experience, we investigated cortical field potentials in response to electrical biphasic pulses applied by means of the cochlear implant. In comparison to naive unstimulated deaf cats and normal hearing cats, the chronically stimulated animals showed larger cortical regions producing middle-latency responses at or above 300 microV amplitude at the contralateral as well as the ipsilateral auditory cortex. The cortex ipsilateral to the chronically stimulated ear did not show any signs of reduced responsiveness when stimulating the 'untrained' ear through a second cochlear implant inserted in the final experiment. With comparable duration of auditory training, the activated cortical area was substantially smaller if implantation had been performed at an older age of 5-6 months. The data emphasize that young sensory systems in cats have a higher capacity for plasticity than older ones and that there is a sensitive period for the cat's auditory system.

Delayed maturation and sensitive periods in the auditory cortex.

Behavioral data indicate the existence of sensitive periods in the development of audition and language. Neurophysiological data demonstrate deficits in the cerebral cortex of auditory-deprived animals, mainly in reduced cochleotopy and deficits in corticocortical and corticothalamic loops. In addition to current spread in the cochlea, reduced cochleotopy leads to channel interactions after cochlear implantation. Deficits in corticocortical and corticothalamic loops interfere with normal processing of auditory activity in cortical areas. Thus, the deprived auditory cortex cannot mature normally in congenital deafness. This maturation can be achieved using auditory experience through cochlear implants. However, implantation is necessary within the sensitive period of the auditory system. The functional role of long-term potentiation and long-term depression, inhibition, cholinergic modulation and neurotrophins in auditory development and sensitive periods are discussed.

Plastic changes in the auditory cortex of congenitally deaf cats following cochlear implantation.

Congenitally deaf cats were used as a model for human inborn deafness and auditory deprivation. The deaf cats were supplied with a cochlear implant, chronically exposed to an acoustic environment and conditioned to acoustic stimuli. In case of early implantation the cats learned to make use of the newly gained auditory channel behaviourally. Neurophysiological and fMRI data showed that the central auditory system was recruited, if implantation took place within a sensitive period of <6 months.

Congenital auditory deprivation reduces synaptic activity within the auditory cortex in a layer-specific manner.

The present study investigates the functional deficits of naive auditory cortices in adult congenitally deaf cats. For this purpose, their auditory system was stimulated electrically using cochlear implants. Synaptic currents in cortical layers were revealed using current source density analyses. They were compared with synaptic currents found in electrically stimulated hearing cats. The naive auditory cortex showed significant deficits in synaptic activity in infragranular cortical layers. Furthermore, there was also a deficit of synaptic activities at longer latencies (>30 ms). The 'cortical column' was not activated in the well-defined sequence found in normal hearing cats. These results demonstrate functional deficits as a consequence of congenital auditory deprivation. Similar deficits are likely in congenitally deaf children.

Electric-acoustic stimulation of the auditory system. New technology for severe hearing loss.

Various devices have been developed to overcome the widespread phenomenon of different degrees of hearing deficits between mild and profound hearing loss. Basically, we differentiate between acoustic stimulation (hearing aids), restricted to cases with a partially functioning cochlear receptor, and electrical stimulation (cochlear implants), stimulating the auditory nerve directly in cases with profound or total hearing loss. For the first time, animal data have been collected that indicate the possibility of nearly interference-free use of both stimulation types simultaneously. In addition, we have gathered the first clinical patient experience, which confirms the encouraging results. Future implications for patients with severe high-frequency hearing loss are discussed.