Lidar attenuation coefficient in the global oceans: insights from ICESat-2 mission.

The attenuation coefficient of natural waters plays a significant role in our understanding of hydrology from both the oceanographic and biological point of view. The advent of near-continuous observations by sophisticated space-based lidars now offers an unprecedented opportunity to characterize attenuation coefficients over open oceans on global and regional scales. At present, however, literature reports of lidar-derived attenuation coefficient estimates (klidar, m-1) in oceanic waters are very limited. In this study, we present a global survey of klidar derived from ATLAS/ICESat-2 nighttime measurements. Our results augment the existing passive sensor ocean color data set with a new diurnal component and extend the record to now include previously unavailable polar nighttime observations. The values of ATLAS measured klidar at 532 nm are between 0.045 and 0.39 m-1 with the higher values (>0.15 m-1) correlated with coastal waters and sea ice covered oceans. The average klidar in clearest oligotrophic ocean gyres is ∼0.058 ± 0.012 m-1 at 532 nm. The results reported here demonstrate the feasibility of using ATLAS/ICESat-2 lidar measurements for global klidar studies, which will in turn provide critical insights that enable climate models to correctly describe the amount of light present under sea ice, and for heat deposition studies in the upper ocean.

Nearshore bathymetry and seafloor property studies from Space lidars: CALIPSO and ICESat-2.

In shallow nearshore waters, seafloor heights and properties can be accurately measured by the current generation of space-based elastic backscatter lidars: CALIOP, flying aboard the CALIPSO satellite and ATLAS aboard ICESat-2. CALIOP's 532 nm volume depolarization ratios, together with the ratios of the attenuated backscatter coefficients measured at 532 nm and 1064 nm, can efficiently distinguish optically shallow waters from nearby land surfaces and deep oceans. ATLAS's high vertical resolution photon measurements can accurately determine seafloor depths in shallow water bodies, characterize seafloor reflectance, and provide assessments of ocean biomass concentrations in the intervening water column. By adding bathymetry, seafloor optical properties (e.g., reflectance, depolarization ratio and attenuated backscatter), and nighttime observations, space lidar measurements obtained in nearshore waters can provide a wealth of unique information to complement existing satellite-based ocean color remote sensing capabilities. The results reported here demonstrate the feasibility of using satellite lidars for nearshore seafloor ecosystem analyses, which in turn provide critical insights for studies of coastal navigation and seabed topography changes due to disasters, as well as the temporal and spatial morphological evolution of coastal systems.

Retrieval of ocean subsurface particulate backscattering coefficient from space-borne CALIOP lidar measurements.

A new approach has been proposed to determine ocean subsurface particulate backscattering coefficient bbp from CALIOP 30° off-nadir lidar measurements. The new method also provides estimates of the particle volume scattering function at the 180° scattering angle. The CALIOP based layer-integrated lidar backscatter and particulate backscattering coefficients are compared with the results obtained from MODIS ocean color measurements. The comparison analysis shows that ocean subsurface lidar backscatter and particulate backscattering coefficient bbp can be accurately obtained from CALIOP lidar measurements, thereby supporting the use of space-borne lidar measurements for ocean subsurface studies.

Inherent optical properties of the coccolithophore: Emiliania huxleyi.

A realistic nonspherical model for Emiliania huxleyi (EHUX) is built, based on electron micrographs of coccolithophore cells. The Inherent Optical Properties (IOP) of the EHUX are then calculated numerically by using the discrete dipole approximation. The coccolithophore model includes a near-spherical core with the refractive index of 1.04 + m(i)j, and a carbonate shell formed by smaller coccoliths with refractive index of 1.2 + m(i)j, where m(i) = 0 or 0.01 and j(2) = -1. The reported IOP are the Mueller scattering matrix, backscattering probability, and depolarization ratio. Our calculation shows that the Mueller matrices of coccolithophores show different angular dependence from those of coccoliths.

Enabling Value Added Scientific Applications of ICESat-2 Data With Effective Removal of Afterpulses.

The Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS) aboard the Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) has been making very high resolution measurements of the Earth's surface elevation since October 2018. ATLAS uses photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) as detectors in photon counting mode, so that a single photon reflected back to the receiver triggers a detection within the ICESat-2 data acquisition system. However, one characteristic of ICESat-2 detected photons is the possible presence of afterpulses, defined as small amplitude pulses occurring after the primary signal pulse due to photon arrival. The disadvantage of these afterpulses is that they often confound the accurate measurements of low level signals following a large amplitude of signal and can degrade energy resolution and cause errors in pulse counting applications. This paper discusses and summarizes the after-pulsing effects exhibited by the ATLAS PMTs based on on-orbit measurements over different seasons and geographic regions. The potential impacts of these after-pulsing effects on altimetry and ocean subsurface retrievals are discussed.

A vector radiative transfer model for coupled atmosphere and ocean systems based on successive order of scattering method.

A vector radiative transfer model has been developed for coupled atmosphere and ocean systems based on the Successive Order of Scattering (SOS) Method. The emphasis of this study is to make the model easy-to-use and computationally efficient. This model provides the full Stokes vector at arbitrary locations which can be conveniently specified by users. The model is capable of tracking and labeling different sources of the photons that are measured, e.g. water leaving radiances and reflected sky lights. This model also has the capability to separate florescence from multi-scattered sunlight. The delta - fit technique has been adopted to reduce computational time associated with the strongly forward-peaked scattering phase matrices. The exponential - linear approximation has been used to reduce the number of discretized vertical layers while maintaining the accuracy. This model is developed to serve the remote sensing community in harvesting physical parameters from multi-platform, multi-sensor measurements that target different components of the atmosphere-oceanic system.

Depolarization ratio and attenuated backscatter for nine cloud types: analyses based on collocated CALIPSO lidar and MODIS measurements.

This paper reports on the relationship between lidar backscatter and the corresponding depolarization ratio for nine types of cloud systems. The data used in this study are the lidar returns measured by the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) aboard the Cloud- Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) satellite and the collocated cloud products derived from the observations made by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aboard Aqua satellite. Specifically, the operational MODIS cloud optical thickness and cloud-top pressure products are used to classify cloud types on the basis of the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) cloud classification scheme. While the CALIPSO observations provide information for up to 10 cloud layers, in the present study only the uppermost clouds are considered. The layer-averaged attenuated backscatter (gamma') and layer-averaged depolarization ratio (delta) from the CALIPSO measurements show both water- and ice-phase features for global cirrus, cirrostratus, and deep convective cloud classes. Furthermore, we screen both the MODIS and CALIPSO data to eliminate cases in which CALIPSO detected two- or multi-layered clouds. It is shown that low gamma' values corresponding to uppermost thin clouds are largely eliminated in the CALIPSO delta-gamma' relationship for single-layered clouds. For mid-latitude and polar regions corresponding, respectively, to latitude belts 30 degrees -60 degrees and 60 degrees -90 degrees in both the hemispheres, a mixture of water and ice is also observed in the case of the altostratus class. MODIS cloud phase flags are also used to screen ice clouds. The resultant water clouds flagged by the MODIS algorithm show only water phase feature in the delta-gamma' relation observed by CALIOP; however, in the case of the ice clouds flagged by the MODIS algorithm, the co-existence of ice- and water-phase clouds is still observed in the CALIPSO delta-gamma' relationship.

Laser pulse bidirectional reflectance from CALIPSO mission.

This paper presents an innovative retrieval method that translate the CALIOP land surface laser pulse returns into the surface bidirectional reflectance. To better analyze the surface returns, the CALIOP receiver impulse response and the downlinked samples' distribution at 30 m resolution are discussed. The saturated laser pulse returns from snow and ice surfaces are recovered based on surface tail information. The retrieved snow surface bidirectional reflectance is compared with reflectance from both CALIOP cloud cover regions and MODIS BRDF/Albedo model parameters. Besides the surface bidirectional reflectance, the column top-of-atmosphere bidirectional reflectance is calculated from the CALIOP lidar background data. It is compared with bidirectional reflectance from WFC radiance measurements. The retrieved CALIOP surface bidirectional reflectance and column top-of-atmosphere bidirectional reflectance results provide unique information to complement existing MODIS standard data products and would have valuable applications for modellers.

The CALIPSO Version 4 Automated Aerosol Classification and Lidar Ratio Selection Algorithm.

The Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) version 4.10 (V4) level 2 aerosol data products, released in November 2016, include substantial improvements to the aerosol subtyping and lidar ratio selection algorithms. These improvements are described along with resulting changes in aerosol optical depth (AOD). The most fundamental change in V4 level 2 aerosol products is a new algorithm to identify aerosol subtypes in the stratosphere. Four aerosol subtypes are introduced for the stratospheric aerosols: polar stratospheric aerosol (PSA), volcanic ash, sulfate/other, and smoke. The tropospheric aerosol subtyping algorithm was also improved by adding the following enhancements: (1) all aerosol subtypes are now allowed over polar regions, whereas the version 3 (V3) algorithm allowed only clean continental and polluted continental aerosols; (2) a new "dusty marine" aerosol subtype is introduced, representing mixtures of dust and marine aerosols near the ocean surface; and (3) the "polluted continental" and "smoke" subtypes have been renamed "polluted continental/smoke" and "elevated smoke", respectively. V4 also revises the lidar ratios for clean marine, dust, clean continental, and elevated smoke subtypes. As a consequence of the V4 updates, the mean 532 nm AOD retrieved by CALIOP has increased by 0.044 (0.036) or 52 % (40 %) for nighttime (daytime). Lidar ratio revisions are the most influential factor for AOD changes from V3 to V4, especially for cloud-free skies. Preliminary validation studies show that the AOD discrepancies between CALIOP and AERONET/MODIS (ocean) are reduced in V4 compared to V3.

CALIPSO Lidar Calibration at 532 nm: Version 4 Nighttime Algorithm.

Data products from the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) on board Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) were recently updated following the implementation of new (version 4) calibration algorithms for all of the level 1 attenuated backscatter measurements. In this work we present the motivation for and the implementation of the version 4 nighttime 532 nm parallel channel calibration. The nighttime 532 nm calibration is the most fundamental calibration of CALIOP data, since all of CALIOP's other radiometric calibration procedures - i.e., the 532 nm daytime calibration and the 1064 nm calibrations during both nighttime and daytime - depend either directly or indirectly on the 532 nm nighttime calibration. The accuracy of the 532 nm nighttime calibration has been significantly improved by raising the molecular normalization altitude from 30-34 km to 36-39 km to substantially reduce stratospheric aerosol contamination. Due to the greatly reduced molecular number density and consequently reduced signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at these higher altitudes, the signal is now averaged over a larger number of samples using data from multiple adjacent granules. As well, an enhanced strategy for filtering the radiation-induced noise from high energy particles was adopted. Further, the meteorological model used in the earlier versions has been replaced by the improved MERRA-2 model. An aerosol scattering ratio of 1.01 ± 0.01 is now explicitly used for the calibration altitude. These modifications lead to globally revised calibration coefficients which are, on average, 2-3% lower than in previous data releases. Further, the new calibration procedure is shown to eliminate biases at high altitudes that were present in earlier versions and consequently leads to an improved representation of stratospheric aerosols. Validation results using airborne lidar measurements are also presented. Biases relative to collocated measurements acquired by the Langley Research Center (LaRC) airborne high spectral resolution lidar (HSRL) are reduced from 3.6% ± 2.2% in the version 3 data set to 1.6% ± 2.4 % in the version 4 release.

The depolarization - attenuated backscatter relation: CALIPSO lidar measurements vs. theory.

Using measurements obtained by the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) satellite, relationships between layer-integrated depolarization ratio (delta) and layer-integrated attenuated backscatter (gamma) are established for moderately thick clouds of both ice and water. A new and simple form of the delta-gamma relation for spherical particles, developed from Monte Carlo simulations and suitable for both water clouds and spherical aerosol particles, is found to agree well with the observations. A high-backscatter, low-depolarization delta-gamma relationship observed for some ice clouds is shown to result primarily from horizontally oriented plates and implies a preferential lidar ratio - depolarization ratio relation in nature for ice cloud particles containing plates.

Quantifying the low bias of CALIPSO's column aerosol optical depth due to undetected aerosol layers.

The CALIOP data processing scheme only retrieves extinction profiles in those portions of the return signal where cloud or aerosol layers have been identified by the CALIOP layer detection scheme. In this study we use two years of CALIOP and MODIS data to quantify the aerosol optical depth of undetected weakly backscattering layers. Aerosol extinction and column-averaged lidar ratio is retrieved from CALIOP Level 1B (Version 4) profile using MODIS AOD as a constraint over oceans from March 2013 to February 2015. To quantify the undetected layer AOD (ULA), an unconstrained retrieval is applied globally using a lidar ratio of 28.75 sr estimated from constrained retrievals during the daytime over the ocean. We find a global mean ULA of 0.031 ± 0.052. There is no significant difference in ULA between land and ocean. However, the fraction of undetected aerosol layers rises considerably during daytime, when the large amount of solar background noise lowers the signal to noise ratio (SNR). For this reason, there is a difference in ULA between day (0.036 ± 0.066) and night (0.025 ± 0.021). ULA is larger in the northern hemisphere and relatively larger at high latitudes. Large ULA for the Polar Regions is strongly related to the cases where the CALIOP Level 2 Product reports zero AOD. This study provides an estimate of the complement of AOD that is not detected by lidar, and bounds the CALIOP AOD uncertainty to provide corrections for science studies that employ the CALIOP Level 2 AOD.

In situ and space-based observations of the Kelud volcanic plume: The persistence of ash in the lower stratosphere.

Volcanic eruptions are important causes of natural variability in the climate system at all time scales. Assessments of the climate impact of volcanic eruptions by climate models almost universally assume that sulfate aerosol is the only radiatively active volcanic material. We report satellite observations from the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) on board the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) satellite after the eruption of Mount Kelud (Indonesia) on 13 February 2014 of volcanic materials in the lower stratosphere. Using these observations along with in situ measurements with the Compact Optical Backscatter AerosoL Detector (COBALD) backscatter sondes and optical particle counters (OPCs) made during a balloon field campaign in northern Australia, we find that fine ash particles with a radius below 0.3 µm likely represented between 20 and 28% of the total volcanic cloud aerosol optical depth 3 months after the eruption. A separation of 1.5-2 km between the ash and sulfate plumes is observed in the CALIOP extinction profiles as well as in the aerosol number concentration measurements of the OPC after 3 months. The settling velocity of fine ash with a radius of 0.3 µm in the tropical lower stratosphere is reduced by 50% due to the upward motion of the Brewer-Dobson circulation resulting a doubling of its lifetime. Three months after the eruption, we find a mean tropical clear-sky radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere from the Kelud plume near -0.08 W/m2 after including the presence of ash; a value ~20% higher than if sulfate alone is considered. Thus, surface cooling following volcanic eruptions could be affected by the persistence of ash and should be considered in climate simulations.