Nod2 influences microbial resilience and susceptibility to colitis following antibiotic exposure.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) etiology involves genetic susceptibility, environmental triggers, and the gut microbiome. Antibiotic exposure is associated with IBD, both in early life and adulthood. Here, we investigated whether Nod2-deficiency influenced response of the gut microbiota to antibiotics and subsequent colitis susceptibility. Wild-type and Nod2-/- littermate mice were treated with amoxicillin as adults or neonates, and fecal samples were collected for 16S rRNA sequencing. Five weeks after antibiotic exposure, dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) colitis was induced. Antibiotic treatment altered the microbiota of adult WT and Nod2-/- mice, but recovery was delayed in Nod2-/- mice. Neonatal antibiotic treatment significantly changed the microbiota at weaning in WT and Nod2-/- littermates; however, Nod2-/- mice maintained reduced microbial diversity 14 days after cessation of antibiotics. Although treatment of adult mice did not influence susceptibility to colitis, neonatally treated Nod2-/- mice developed a more severe colitis. Moreover, the colitis phenotype was transferable through fecal transplantation into germ-free Nod2-/- recipients, and was associated with changes in intestinal T cells and the cytokine milieu following inflammation. These data demonstrate that neonatal antibiotic exposure has long-lasting influence on the microbiota and mucosal immunity, and may explain how NOD2 contributes to the risk of intestinal inflammation.

Adaptive Behavior Scale part two: Relative severity of maladaptive behavior.

Part Two of the Adaptive Behavior Scale contains statements that cover 13 domains of maladaptive behavior. The present system of scoring and profiling reflects the frequency of occurrence of behavior (either occasionally or frequency) and not severity or relative importance. Thirty-three psychologists with experience in mental retardation rated the 452 statements contained in Part Two along a continuum of severity. Median severity scores were computed for all statements. Results indicated that statements prefaced by "frequently" were judged as more serious than those prefaced by "occasionally," and domains varied greatly with regard to relative severity. Correlational analysi revealed that irrespective of absolute differences due to frequency of occurrence, different types of maladaptive behavior were systematically placed along a relative continuum. Substantial reliability was found among judgments. Possible clinical and psychometric advantages of using these severity scores were suggested.