Novel Xanomeline-Containing Bitopic Ligands of Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors: Design, Synthesis and FRET Investigation.

In the last few years, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) receptor sensors have contributed to the understanding of GPCR ligand binding and functional activation. FRET sensors based on muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) have been employed to study dual-steric ligands, allowing for the detection of different kinetics and distinguishing between partial, full, and super agonism. Herein, we report the synthesis of the two series of bitopic ligands, 12-Cn and 13-Cn, and their pharmacological investigation at the M1, M2, M4, and M5 FRET-based receptor sensors. The hybrids were prepared by merging the pharmacophoric moieties of the M1/M4-preferring orthosteric agonist Xanomeline 10 and the M1-selective positive allosteric modulator 77-LH-28-1 (1-[3-(4-butyl-1-piperidinyl)propyl]-3,4-dihydro-2(1H)-quinolinone) 11. The two pharmacophores were connected through alkylene chains of different lengths (C3, C5, C7, and C9). Analyzing the FRET responses, the tertiary amine compounds 12-C5, 12-C7, and 12-C9 evidenced a selective activation of M1 mAChRs, while the methyl tetrahydropyridinium salts 13-C5, 13-C7, and 13-C9 showed a degree of selectivity for M1 and M4 mAChRs. Moreover, whereas hybrids 12-Cn showed an almost linear response at the M1 subtype, hybrids 13-Cn evidenced a bell-shaped activation response. This different activation pattern suggests that the positive charge anchoring the compound 13-Cn to the orthosteric site ensues a degree of receptor activation depending on the linker length, which induces a graded conformational interference with the binding pocket closure. These bitopic derivatives represent novel pharmacological tools for a better understanding of ligand-receptor interactions at a molecular level.

Tacrine-xanomeline and tacrine-iperoxo hybrid ligands: Synthesis and biological evaluation at acetylcholinesterase and M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors.

We synthesized a set of new hybrid derivatives (7-C8, 7-C10, 7-C12 and 8-C8, 8-C10, 8-C12), in which a polymethylene spacer chain of variable length connected the pharmacophoric moiety of xanomeline, an M1/M4-preferring orthosteric muscarinic agonist, with that of tacrine, a well-known acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor able to allosterically modulate muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs). When tested in vitro in a colorimetric assay for their ability to inhibit AChE, the new compounds showed higher or similar potency compared to that of tacrine. Docking analyses were performed on the most potent inhibitors in the series (8-C8, 8-C10, 8-C12) to rationalize their experimental inhibitory power against AChE. Next, we evaluated the signaling cascade at M1 mAChRs by exploring the interaction of Gαq-PLC-ß3 proteins through split luciferase assays and the myo-Inositol 1 phosphate (IP1) accumulation in cells. The results were compared with those obtained on the known derivatives 6-C7 and 6-C10, two quite potent AChE inhibitors in which tacrine is linked to iperoxo, an exceptionally potent muscarinic orthosteric activator. Interestingly, we found that 6-C7 and 6-C10 behaved as partial agonists of the M1 mAChR, at variance with hybrids 7-Cn and 8-Cn containing xanomeline as the orthosteric molecular fragment, which were all unable to activate the receptor subtype response.

Designing Hybrids Targeting the Cholinergic System by Modulating the Muscarinic and Nicotinic Receptors: A Concept to Treat Alzheimer's Disease.

The cholinergic hypothesis has been reported first being the cause of memory dysfunction in the Alzheimer's disease. Researchers around the globe have focused their attention on understanding the mechanisms of how this complicated system contributes to processes such as learning, memory, disorientation, linguistic problems, and behavioral issues in the indicated chronic neurodegenerative disease. The present review reports recent updates in hybrid molecule design as a strategy for selectively addressing multiple target proteins involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the study of their therapeutic relevance. The rationale and the design of the bifunctional compounds will be discussed in order to understand their potential as tools to investigate the role of the cholinergic system in AD.

The Role of Orthosteric Building Blocks of Bitopic Ligands for Muscarinic M1 Receptors.

The muscarinic M1 acetylcholine receptor is an important drug target for the treatment of various neurological disorders. Designing M1 receptor-selective drugs has proven challenging, mainly due to the high conservation of the acetylcholine binding site among muscarinic receptor subtypes. Therefore, less conserved and topographically distinct allosteric binding sites have been explored to increase M1 receptor selectivity. In this line, bitopic ligands, which target orthosteric and allosteric binding sites simultaneously, may provide a promising strategy. Here, we explore the allosteric, M1-selective BQCAd scaffold derived from BQCA as a starting point for the design, synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation of a series of novel bitopic ligands in which the orthosteric moieties and linker lengths are systematically varied. Since ß-arrestin recruitment seems to be favorable to therapeutic implication, all the compounds were investigated by G protein and ß-arrestin assays. Some bitopic ligands are partial to full agonists for G protein activation, some activate ß-arrestin recruitment, and the degree of ß-arrestin recruitment varies according to the respective modification. The allosteric BQCAd scaffold controls the positioning of the orthosteric ammonium group of all ligands, suggesting that this interaction is essential for stimulating G protein activation. However, ß-arrestin recruitment is not affected. The novel set of bitopic ligands may constitute a toolbox to study the requirements of ß-arrestin recruitment during ligand design for therapeutic usage.

FRET Studies of Quinolone-Based Bitopic Ligands and Their Structural Analogues at the Muscarinic M1 Receptor.

Aiming to design partial agonists as well as allosteric modulators for the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine (M1AChR) receptor, two different series of bipharmacophoric ligands and their structural analogues were designed and synthesized. The hybrids were composed of the benzyl quinolone carboxylic acid (BQCA)-derived subtype selective allosteric modulator 3 and the orthosteric building block 4-((4,5-dihydroisoxazol-3-yl)oxy)-N,N-dimethylbut-2-yn-1-amine (base of iperoxo) 1 or the endogenous ligand 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl acetate (base of acetylcholine) 2, respectively. The two pharmacophores were linked via alkylene chains of different lengths (C4, C6, C8, and C10). Furthermore, the corresponding structural analogues of 1 and 2 and of modified BQCA 3 with varying alkyl chain length between C2 and C10 were investigated. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements in a living single cell system were investigated in order to understand how these compounds interact with a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) on a molecular level and how the single moieties contribute to ligand receptor interaction. The characterization of the modified orthosteric ligands indicated that a linker attached to an orthoster rapidly attenuates the receptor response. Linker length elongation increases the receptor response of bitopic ligands, until reaching a maximum, followed by a gradual decrease. The optimal linker length was found to be six methylene groups at the M1AChR. A new conformational change is described that is not of inverse agonistic origin for long linker bitopic ligands and was further investigated by exceptional fragment-based screening approaches.