Sinomenine ameliorates collagen-induced arthritis in mice by targeting GBP5 and regulating the P2X7 receptor to suppress NLRP3-related signaling pathways.

Sinomenine (SIN) is an isoquinoline alkaloid isolated from Sinomenii Caulis, a traditional Chinese medicine used to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Clinical trials have shown that SIN has comparable efficacy to methotrexate in treating patients with RA but with fewer adverse effects. In this study, we explored the anti-inflammatory effects and therapeutic targets of SIN in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells and in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice. LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells were pretreated with SIN (160, 320, 640 µM); and CIA mice were administered SIN (25, 50 and 100 mg·kg-1·d-1, i.p.) for 30 days. We first conducted a solvent-induced protein precipitation (SIP) assay in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and found positive evidence for the direct binding of SIN to guanylate-binding protein 5 (GBP5), which was supported by molecular simulation docking, proteomics, and binding affinity assays (KD = 3.486 µM). More importantly, SIN treatment markedly decreased the expression levels of proteins involved in the GBP5/P2X7R-NLRP3 pathways in both LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells and the paw tissue of CIA mice. Moreover, the levels of IL-1ß, IL-18, IL-6, and TNF-α in both the supernatant of inflammatory cells and the serum of CIA mice were significantly reduced. This study illustrates a novel anti-inflammatory mechanism of SIN; SIN suppresses the activity of NLRP3-related pathways by competitively binding GBP5 and downregulating P2X7R protein expression, which ultimately contributes to the reduction of IL-1ß and IL-18 production. The binding specificity of SIN to GBP5 and its inhibitory effect on GBP5 activity suggest that SIN has great potential as a specific GBP5 antagonist.

Sinomenine regulates CD14/TLR4, JAK2/STAT3 pathway and calcium signal via α7nAChR to inhibit inflammation in LPS-stimulated macrophages.

Objective: To investigate the cellular mechanism that sinomenine (SIN) inhibits inflammation in macrophages induced by LPS through α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR). Materials and methods: RAW264.7 cells were stimulated with LPS and treated by SIN or nicotine (Nic). A selective antagonist of α7nAChR, α-bungarotoxin (BTX) was used to block α7nAChR. AG490 was used to inhibit JAK2 activation. ELISA was performed to detect the levels of TNF-α and MCP-1. Western blotting was used to analyze the expression of MIF, MMP-9, CD14, TLR4, STAT3 and p-STAT3. Intracellular-free calcium level was measured by Fluorescent probe fluo-3/AM Results: SIN inhibited the production of TNF-α, MCP-1, MIF, and MMP-9, decreased the expression of CD14 and TLR4, and inhibited the release of intracellular-free calcium from intracellular stores in RAW 264.7 cells stimulated by LPS. JAK-specific inhibitor AG490 attenuated the inhibitory effect of SIN on TNF-α. SIN increased the phosphorylation of STAT3. And the above effects of SIN were attenuated by antagonist of α7nAChR. Conclusions: SIN can decrease the expression of CD14/TLR4 and intracellular free calcium level, activate JAK2/STAT3 pathway to inhibit inflammatory response through α7nAChR in macrophages.

Sinomenine inhibits macrophage M1 polarization by downregulating α7nAChR via a feedback pathway of α7nAChR/ERK/Egr-1.

BACKGROUND: Sinomenine (SIN) is an anti-inflammatory drug that has been used for decades in China to treat arthritis. In a previous study, SIN acted on α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) to inhibit inflammatory responses in macrophages, which indicates a new anti-inflammatory mechanism of SIN. However, the level of α7nAChR was increased in the inflammatory responses and was downregulated by SIN in vitro, so the underlying mechanisms of SIN acting on α7nAChR remain unclear. PURPOSE: To analyze the role of α7nAChR in inflammation and the effect and mechanism of SIN regulation of α7nAChR. METHODS: The effects of SIN on α7nAChR in endotoxemic mice and LPS-stimulated macrophages were observed. Nicotine (Nic) was used as a positive control, and berberine (Ber) was used as a negative control targeting α7nAChR. The antagonists of α7nAChR, α-bungarotoxin (BTX) and mecamylamine (Me), were used to block α7nAChR. In RAW264.7 macrophage cells in vitro, α7nAChR short hairpin RNA (shRNA) was used to knock down α7nAChR. Macrophage polarization was analyzed by the detection of TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, IL-10, Arg-1, and Fizz1. U0126 was used to block ERK phosphorylation. The cytokines α7nAChR, ERK1/2, p-ERK1/2 and Egr-1 were detected. RESULTS: SIN decreased the levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and the expression of α7nAChR increased by LPS in endotoxemic mice. The above effects of SIN were attenuated by BTX. In the α7nAChR shRNA transfected RAW264.7 cells, compared with the control, α7nAChR was knocked down, and M1 phenotype markers (including TNF-α, IL-6, and iNOS) were significantly downregulated, whereas M2 phenotype markers (including IL-10, Arg-1, and Fizz1) were significantly upregulated when stimulated by LPS. SIN inhibited the expression of p-ERK1/2 and the transcription factor Egr-1 induced by LPS in RAW264.7 cells, and the above effects of SIN were attenuated by BTX. The expression of α7nAChR was suppressed by U0126, which lessened the expression of p-ERK1/2 and Egr-1. CONCLUSIONS: SIN acts on α7nAChR to inhibit inflammatory responses and downregulates high expression of α7nAChR in vivo and in vitro. The increase of α7nAChR expression is correlated with inflammatory responses and participates in macrophage M1 polarization. SIN downregulates α7nAChR via a feedback pathway of α7nAChR/ERK/Egr-1, which contributes to inhibiting macrophage M1 polarization and inflammatory responses.

Alpha7 nAChR Expression Is Correlated with Arthritis Development and Inhibited by Sinomenine in Adjuvant-Induced Arthritic Rats.

Sinomenine (SIN) is the active ingredient of the Chinese herb Sinomenium acutum that has been used to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA) for about 30 years in China. Marked expression of the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) in the joint synovium of RA patients suggested a relationship between α7nAChR and RA. This study investigated the relationship between α7nAChR and RA development and the effects of SIN on α7nAChR expression in vivo and in vitro. Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with complete Freund's adjuvant to induce arthritis and then treated with SIN or methotrexate (MTX) from day 0 to day 30. Four clinical parameters-paw volume, arthritic index (AI), serum TNF-α concentration, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)-were measured. Splenic lymphocytes were isolated for Bacille Calmette Guerin (BCG) stimulation. α7nAChR expression in tissues and cells was examined by RT-PCR, western blot, immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry. Cell proliferation was evaluated by the CCK-8 assay. The relationship between α7nAChR expression and the four clinical parameters was analyzed by single-factor correlation analysis. Our results showed that the paw volume, AI, TNF-α concentration, and ESR in adjuvant-induced arthritic (AIA) rats were reduced by SIN or MTX treatment. SIN decreased α7nAChR expression in tissues and cells compared to the model group, while MTX had no significant effect on α7nAChR expression. Moreover, there was a positive relationship between α7nAChR expression and paw swelling, AI, and TNF-α concentration. Splenic lymphocyte activation was accompanied by increased α7nAChR expression, while SIN treatment inhibited cell activation and downregulated α7nAChR expression. α7nAChR expression showed a positive correlation with the progression of RA in AIA rats that may involve lymphocyte activation. Different from MTX, the inhibition of SIN on α7nAChR expression might contribute to its antiarthritic effect, suggesting that SIN could be an important supplement to the treatment strategy for RA.

Sinomenine inhibits fibroblast-like synoviocyte proliferation by regulating α7nAChR expression via ERK/Egr-1 pathway.

Fibroblast like synoviocyte (FLS) is a crucial in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and involved in inflammation and joint destruction. Sinomenine (SIN), an alkaloid derived from the plant Sinomenium acutum, has anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect and been used for RA treatment in China. Alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChR), as the key receptor in cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP) to inhibit inflammation, has been detected in RA patients synovium, but its role is still unclear. Here we investigated the association between the aggressive proliferation of FLS and α7nAChR expression and the effect of sinomenine. FLS was isolated from synovial tissues of adjuvant-induced-arthritis (AIA) rat. Tumor necrosis factor(TNF)-α was used to induce the aggressive proliferation of FLS. MTT assay was applied to evaluate the proliferation of FLS. The messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels of α7nAChR and early growth response gene-1 (Egr-1) were measured. The results showed that TNF-α induced FLS proliferation in vitro (P < .01) and increased the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and the expression of Egr-1 and α7nAChR (P < .05 or P < .01). U0126, the inhibitor of ERK1/2 inhibited α7nAChR expression and FLS proliferation significantly (P < .05 or P < .01). Specific short interference RNA(siRNA) of α7nAChR decreased α7nAChR expression and inhibited FLS proliferation as well. SIN inhibited the proliferation of FLS and decreased the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, and the expression of Egr-1 and α7nAChR induced by TNF-α (P < .05). In conclusion, the expression of α7nAChR involved in the aggressive proliferation of FLS induced by TNF-α and was regulated by ERK/Egr-1 signal pathway. SIN inhibited FLS proliferation and α7nAChR expression through inhibiting ERK/Egr-1 signal pathway, this may contribute to the anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effect of SIN.

Suppressing mPGES-1 expression by sinomenine ameliorates inflammation and arthritis.

Recently, microsomal prostaglandin E synthase 1 (mPGES-1) has attracted much attention from pharmacologists as a promising strategy and an attractive target for treating various types of diseases including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), which could preserve the anti-inflammatory effect while reducing the adverse effects often occur during administration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Here, we report that sinomenine (SIN) decreased prostaglandin (PG)E2 levels without affecting prostacyclin (PG)I2 and thromboxane (TX)A2 synthesis via selective inhibiting mPGES-1 expression, a possible reason of low risk of cardiovascular event compared with NSAIDs. In addition, mPGES-1 protein expression was down-regulated by SIN treatment in the inflamed paw tissues both in carrageenan-induced edema model in rats and the collagen-II induced arthritis (CIA) model in DBA mice. More interestingly, SIN suppressed the last step of mPGES-1 gene expression by decreasing the DNA binding ability of NF-κB, paving a new way for drug discovery.

α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor is a Novel Mediator of Sinomenine Anti-Inflammation Effect in Macrophages Stimulated by Lipopolysaccharide.

Sinomenine (SIN), an alkaloid derived from the plant Sinomenium acutum, has anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects and has been used for rheumatoid arthritis treatment in China. This study aims to verify the hypothesis that SIN acts on α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) to inhibit the activation of macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide. The prototypical α7nAChR antagonist α-bungarotoxin and mecamylamine attenuated the effect of SIN on tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 in RAW264.7 murine macrophage-like cells and primary peritoneal macrophages of mouse induced by lipopolysaccharide. With the knockdown of α7nAChR expression in RAW264.7 cells by small interfering RNA, the inhibitory effect of SIN on tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 was reversed. Sinomenine decreased p65 expression in nuclear and increased IκBα expression in cytoplasm, and these effects were reversed by the α7nAChR small interfering RNA as well. These results indicate that the anti-inflammatory effects of SIN on macrophages in vitro depend on α7nAChR.

[Gene expression of toll-like receptors in the liver, lungs and spleen in mice after endotoxin challenge].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the gene expression of some lipopolysaccharide (LPS) receptors after LPS stimulation. METHODS: The total RNA from normal and LPS-challenged mice was extracted by Trizol reagent and the gene expression of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), TLR4, CD(14), LPS-binding protein (LBP) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha(TNF-alpha) were measured by semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). RESULTS: The gene of TLR2 was expressed in normal lungs and spleen tissues, and TLR2, CD(14), LBP in liver. After challenged by LPS, the expressions of TLR2, TLR4, and TNF-alpha in lungs, TLR2, CD(14), LBP and TNF-alpha in liver, TLR2, TLR4, CD(14), and TNF-alpha in spleen were increased at 1, 3, and 5 hours. CONCLUSION: LPS might alert the ability against pathogen-associated molecules by inducing or enhancing the expression of genes that involved in the LPS signal transduction.

[The effect of sinomenine on cyclooxygenase activity and the expression of COX-1 and COX-2 mRNA in human peripheral monocytes].

OBJECTIVE: To observe in vitro the effect of Sinomenine, a pure alkaloid extracted from the chinese medical plant Sinomenium acutum on the activity of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) and the expression of COX-1 and COX-2 mRNA. METHOD: Mononuclear leukocytes were obtained from healthy adults. Isolated mononuclear leucocytes from human peripheral blood (PBMC) were incubated (1 x 10(6).mL-1) with or without sinomenine (or indomethacin), after incubated for 24 hours at 37 degrees C with 5% CO2; the media were assayed for the PGE2 by radioimmunoassay (RIA). LPS was used to stimulate the monocytes at a concentration of 5 micrograms.mL-1. And by RT-PCR, both COX-1 and COX-2 mRNAs were detected in Mononuclear leukocytes after incubation for different hours with drug (sinomenine or indomethacin) or not. RESULT: LPS (stimulated) induced the production of PGE2 in PBMC increasing with high expression of COX-2 mRNA; sinomenine reduced PGE2 production in LPS stimulated human monocytes more than in non-stimulated human monocytes. In comparative experiments, indomethacin, a non selective COX inhibitor, reduced the production of PGE2 equally in both states. Meanwhile, neither sinomenine(0.1-1 mmol.L-1) nor indomethacin(0.5-10 mumol.L-1) inhibited the expression of both COX-1 and COX-2 mRNAs by RT-PCR with beta-actin as reference. CONCLUSION: In contrast with indomethacin, Sinomenine shows a preferential inhibitory effect on COX-2 over COX-1, These results suggest that Sinomenine is a selective COX-2 inhibitor, which may be directly related to suppressing cyclooxygenase activity.

[Effects of total alkaloids of Tongbiling prescription on Th1 type cytokine expression in T lymphocytes].

AIM: To study the effects of total alkaloid of Tongbiling prescription(TBL) on Th1 type cytokine expression in T cells in order to elucidate the anti-inflammatory mechanism of TBL. METHODS: The lymphocytes were isolated from mouse mesenteric lymph nodes and cultured in-vitro. Various concentrations of TBL were added to the culture followed by phorbol ester and inomycin treatment and then incubated for another 4 hours. The expressions of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha in the lymphocytes were analyzed by flow cytometry. RESULTS: 200 mg/L and 100 mg/L TBL could obviously inhibit IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha expressions in T lymphocytes. CONCLUSION: Inhibiting Th1 cytokine expression may be one mechanism by which TBL can treat rheumatoid arthritis.