ONECUT2 acts as a lineage plasticity driver in adenocarcinoma as well as neuroendocrine variants of prostate cancer.

Androgen receptor- (AR-) indifference is a mechanism of resistance to hormonal therapy in prostate cancer (PC). Here we demonstrate that ONECUT2 (OC2) activates resistance through multiple drivers associated with adenocarcinoma, stem-like and neuroendocrine (NE) variants. Direct OC2 gene targets include the glucocorticoid receptor (GR; NR3C1) and the NE splicing factor SRRM4, which are key drivers of lineage plasticity. Thus, OC2, despite its previously described NEPC driver function, can indirectly activate a portion of the AR cistrome through epigenetic activation of GR. Mechanisms by which OC2 regulates gene expression include promoter binding, enhancement of genome-wide chromatin accessibility, and super-enhancer reprogramming. Pharmacologic inhibition of OC2 suppresses lineage plasticity reprogramming induced by the AR signaling inhibitor enzalutamide. These results demonstrate that OC2 activation promotes a range of drug resistance mechanisms associated with treatment-emergent lineage variation in PC and support enhanced efforts to therapeutically target OC2 as a means of suppressing treatment-resistant disease.

Ambient atmospheric PM worsens mouse lung injury induced by influenza A virus through lysosomal dysfunction.

BACKGROUND: Particulate matter (PM) air pollution poses a significant risk to respiratory health and is especially linked with various infectious respiratory diseases such as influenza. Our previous studies have shown that H5N1 virus infection could induce alveolar epithelial A549 cell death by enhancing lysosomal dysfunction. This study aims to investigate the mechanisms underlying the effects of PM on influenza virus infections, with a particular focus on lysosomal dysfunction. RESULTS: Here, we showed that PM nanoparticles such as silica and alumina could induce A549 cell death and lysosomal dysfunction, and degradation of lysosomal-associated membrane proteins (LAMPs), which are the most abundant lysosomal membrane proteins. The knockdown of LAMPs with siRNA facilitated cellular entry of both H1N1 and H5N1 influenza viruses. Furthermore, we demonstrated that silica and alumina synergistically increased alveolar epithelial cell death induced by H1N1 and H5N1 influenza viruses by enhancing lysosomal dysfunction via LAMP degradation and promoting viral entry. In vivo, lung injury in the H5N1 virus infection-induced model was exacerbated by pre-exposure to silica, resulting in an increase in the wet/dry ratio and histopathological score. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings reveal the mechanism underlying the synergistic effect of nanoparticles in the early stage of the influenza virus life cycle and may explain the increased number of respiratory patients during periods of air pollution.

BoxCar and shotgun proteomic analyses reveal molecular networks regulated by UBR5 in prostate cancer.

Prostate cancer (PC) is a major health and economic problem in industrialized countries, yet our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of PC progression and drug response remains limited. Accumulating evidence showed that certain E3 ubiquitin ligases such as SIAH2, RNF7, and SPOP play important roles in PC development and progression. However, the roles and mechanisms of other E3s in PC progression remain largely unexplored. Through an integration analysis of clinical genomic and transcriptomic profiles of PC tumors, this study identified UBR5 as a top PC-relevant E3 ubiquitin ligase whose expression levels are strongly associated with PC progression and aggressiveness. BoxCar and shotgun proteomic analyses of control and UBR5-knockdown PC3 cells complementarily identified 75 UBR5-regulated proteins. Bioinformatic analysis suggested that the 75 proteins form four molecular networks centered around FANCD2, PAF1, YY1, and LAMB3 via direct protein-protein interactions. Experimental analyses demonstrated that UBR5 associates with and downregulates two key DNA damage repair proteins (XRCC3 and FANCD2) and confers PC cell sensitivity to olaparib, a PARP inhibitor in clinical use for cancer therapy. This study represents the first application of BoxCar in PC research, provides new insights into the molecular functions of UBR5 in PC, and suggests that PC patients with UBR5-high tumors may potentially benefit from PARP inhibitor treatment.

TP63, SOX2, and KLF5 Establish a Core Regulatory Circuitry That Controls Epigenetic and Transcription Patterns in Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cell Lines.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: We investigated the transcriptome of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) cells, activity of gene regulatory (enhancer and promoter regions), and the effects of blocking epigenetic regulatory proteins. METHODS: We performed chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing with antibodies against H3K4me1, H3K4me3, and H3K27ac and an assay for transposase-accessible chromatin to map the enhancer regions and accessible chromatin in 8 ESCC cell lines. We used the CRC_Mapper algorithm to identify core regulatory circuitry transcription factors in ESCC cell lines, and determined genome occupancy profiles for 3 of these factors. In ESCC cell lines, expression of transcription factors was knocked down with small hairpin RNAs, promoter and enhancer regions were disrupted by CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, or bromodomains and extraterminal (BET) family proteins and histone deacetylases (HDACs) were inhibited with ARV-771 and romidepsin, respectively. ESCC cell lines were then analyzed by whole-transcriptome sequencing, immunoprecipitation, immunoblots, immunohistochemistry, and viability assays. Interactions between distal enhancers and promoters were identified and verified with circular chromosome conformation capture sequencing. NOD-SCID mice were given injections of modified ESCC cells, some mice where given injections of HDAC or BET inhibitors, and growth of xenograft tumors was measured. RESULTS: We identified super-enhancer-regulated circuits and transcription factors TP63, SOX2, and KLF5 as core regulatory factors in ESCC cells. Super-enhancer regulation of ALDH3A1 mediated by core regulatory factors was required for ESCC viability. We observed direct interactions between the promoter region of TP63 and functional enhancers, mediated by the core regulatory circuitry transcription factors. Deletion of enhancer regions from ESCC cells decreased expression of the core regulatory circuitry transcription factors and reduced cell viability; these same results were observed with knockdown of each core regulatory circuitry transcription factor. Incubation of ESCC cells with BET and HDAC disrupted the core regulatory circuitry program and the epigenetic modifications observed in these cells; mice given injections of HDAC or BET inhibitors developed smaller xenograft tumors from the ESCC cell lines. Xenograft tumors grew more slowly in mice given the combination of ARV-771 and romidepsin than mice given either agent alone. CONCLUSIONS: In epigenetic and transcriptional analyses of ESCC cell lines, we found the transcription factors TP63, SOX2, and KLF5 to be part of a core regulatory network that determines chromatin accessibility, epigenetic modifications, and gene expression patterns in these cells. A combination of epigenetic inhibitors slowed growth of xenograft tumors derived from ESCC cells in mice.

On the Road to Accurate Protein Biomarkers in Prostate Cancer Diagnosis and Prognosis: Current Status and Future Advances.

Prostate cancer (PC) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among men worldwide. Molecular biomarkers work in conjunction with existing clinicopathologic tools to help physicians decide who to biopsy, re-biopsy, treat, or re-treat. The past decade has witnessed the commercialization of multiple PC protein biomarkers with improved performance, remarkable progress in proteomic technologies for global discovery and targeted validation of novel protein biomarkers from clinical specimens, and the emergence of novel, promising PC protein biomarkers. In this review, we summarize these advances and discuss the challenges and potential solutions for identifying and validating clinically useful protein biomarkers in PC diagnosis and prognosis. The identification of multi-protein biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity, as well as their integration with clinicopathologic parameters, imaging, and other molecular biomarkers, bodes well for optimal personalized management of PC patients.

Low-Background Acyl-Biotinyl Exchange Largely Eliminates the Coisolation of Non-S-Acylated Proteins and Enables Deep S-Acylproteomic Analysis.

Protein S-acylation (also called palmitoylation) is a common post-translational modification whose deregulation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of many diseases. Acyl-biotinyl exchange (ABE), a widely used method for the enrichment of S-acylated proteins, has the potential of capturing the entire S-acylproteome in any type of biological sample. Here, we showed that current ABE methods suffer from a high background arising from the coisolation of non-S-acylated proteins. The background can be substantially reduced by an additional blockage of residual free cysteine residues with 2,2'-dithiodipyridine prior to the biotin-HPDP reaction. Coupling the low-background ABE (LB-ABE) method with label-free proteomics, 2 895 high-confidence candidate S-acylated proteins (including 1 591 known S-acylated proteins) were identified from human prostate cancer LNCaP cells, representing so-far the largest S-acylproteome data set identified in a single study. Immunoblotting analysis confirmed the S-acylation of five known and five novel prostate cancer-related S-acylated proteins in LNCaP cells and suggested that their S-acylation levels were about 0.6-1.8%. In summary, the LB-ABE method largely eliminates the coisolation of non-S-acylated proteins and enables deep S-acylproteomic analysis. It is expected to facilitate a much more comprehensive and accurate quantification of S-acylproteomes than previous ABE methods.

Quantitative proteomic analysis of prostate tissue specimens identifies deregulated protein complexes in primary prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most frequently diagnosed non-skin cancer and a leading cause of mortality among males in developed countries. However, our understanding of the global changes of protein complexes within PCa tissue specimens remains very limited, although it has been well recognized that protein complexes carry out essentially all major processes in living organisms and that their deregulation drives the pathogenesis and progression of various diseases. METHODS: By coupling tandem mass tagging-synchronous precursor selection-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry with differential expression and co-regulation analyses, the present study compared the differences between protein complexes in normal prostate, low-grade PCa, and high-grade PCa tissue specimens. RESULTS: Globally, a large downregulated putative protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was detected in both low-grade and high-grade PCa, yet a large upregulated putative PPI network was only detected in high-grade but not low-grade PCa, compared with normal controls. To identify specific protein complexes that are deregulated in PCa, quantified proteins were mapped to protein complexes in CORUM (v3.0), a high-quality collection of 4274 experimentally verified mammalian protein complexes. Differential expression and gene ontology (GO) enrichment analyses suggested that 13 integrin complexes involved in cell adhesion were significantly downregulated in both low- and high-grade PCa compared with normal prostate, and that four Prothymosin alpha (ProTα) complexes were significantly upregulated in high-grade PCa compared with normal prostate. Moreover, differential co-regulation and GO enrichment analyses indicated that the assembly levels of six protein complexes involved in RNA splicing were significantly increased in low-grade PCa, and those of four subcomplexes of mitochondrial complex I were significantly increased in high-grade PCa, compared with normal prostate. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, to the best of our knowledge, the study represents the first large-scale and quantitative, albeit indirect, comparison of individual protein complexes in human PCa tissue specimens. It may serve as a useful resource for better understanding the deregulation of protein complexes in primary PCa.

Neuraminidase of Influenza A Virus Binds Lysosome-Associated Membrane Proteins Directly and Induces Lysosome Rupture.

UNLABELLED: As a recycling center, lysosomes are filled with numerous acid hydrolase enzymes that break down waste materials and invading pathogens. Recently, lysosomal cell death has been defined as "lysosomal membrane permeabilization and the consequent leakage of lysosome contents into cytosol." Here, we show that the neuraminidase (NA) of H5N1 influenza A virus markedly deglycosylates and degrades lysosome-associated membrane proteins (LAMPs; the most abundant membrane proteins of lysosome), which induces lysosomal rupture, and finally leads to cell death of alveolar epithelial carcinoma A549 cells and human tracheal epithelial cells. The NA inhibitors peramivir and zanamivir could effectively block the deglycosylation of LAMPs, inhibit the virus cell entry, and prevent cell death induced by the H5N1 influenza virus. The NA of seasonal H1N1 virus, however, does not share these characteristics. Our findings not only reveal a novel role of NA in the early stage of the H5N1 influenza virus life cycle but also elucidate the molecular mechanism of lysosomal rupture crucial for influenza virus induced cell death. IMPORTANCE: The integrity of lysosomes is vital for maintaining cell homeostasis, cellular defense and clearance of invading pathogens. This study shows that the H5N1 influenza virus could induce lysosomal rupture through deglycosylating lysosome-associated membrane proteins (LAMPs) mediated by the neuraminidase activity of NA protein. NA inhibitors such as peramivir and zanamivir could inhibit the deglycosylation of LAMPs and protect lysosomes, which also further interferes with the H5N1 influenza virus infection at early stage of life cycle. This work is significant because it presents new concepts for NA's function, as well as for influenza inhibitors' mechanism of action, and could partially explain the high mortality and high viral load after H5N1 virus infection in human beings and why NA inhibitors have more potent therapeutic effects for lethal avian influenza virus infections at early stage.

Autonomous action and cooperativity between the ONECUT2 transcription factor and its 3' untranslated region.

The transcription factor ONECUT2 (OC2) is a master transcriptional regulator operating in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer that suppresses androgen receptor activity and promotes neural differentiation and tumor cell survival. OC2 mRNA possesses an unusually long (14,575 nt), evolutionarily conserved 3' untranslated region (3' UTR) with many microRNA binding sites, including up to 26 miR-9 sites. This is notable because miR-9 targets many of the same genes regulated by the OC2 protein. Paradoxically, OC2 expression is high in tissues with high miR-9 expression. The length and complex secondary structure of OC2 mRNA suggests that it is a potent master competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) capable of sequestering miRNAs. Here, we describe a novel role for OC2 3' UTR in lethal prostate cancer consistent with a function as a ceRNA. A plausible ceRNA network in OC2-driven tumors was constructed computationally and then confirmed in prostate cancer cell lines. Genes regulated by OC2 3' UTR exhibited high overlap (up to 45%) with genes driven by the overexpression of the OC2 protein in the absence of 3' UTR, indicating a cooperative functional relationship between the OC2 protein and its 3' UTR. These overlapping networks suggest an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to reinforce OC2 transcription by protection of OC2-regulated mRNAs from miRNA suppression. Both the protein and 3' UTR showed increased polycomb-repressive complex activity. The expression of OC2 3' UTR mRNA alone (without protein) dramatically increased the metastatic potential by in vitro assays. Additionally, OC2 3' UTR increased the expression of Aldo-Keto reductase and UDP-glucuronyl transferase family genes responsible for altering the androgen synthesis pathway. ONECUT2 represents the first-described dual-modality transcript that operates as both a key transcription factor driving castration-resistant prostate cancer and a master ceRNA that promotes and protects the same transcriptional network.

ONECUT2 Activates Diverse Resistance Drivers of Androgen Receptor-Independent Heterogeneity in Prostate Cancer.

Androgen receptor- (AR-) indifference is a mechanism of resistance to hormonal therapy in prostate cancer (PC). Here we demonstrate that the HOX/CUT transcription factor ONECUT2 (OC2) activates resistance through multiple drivers associated with adenocarcinoma, stem-like and neuroendocrine (NE) variants. Direct OC2 targets include the glucocorticoid receptor and the NE splicing factor SRRM4, among others. OC2 regulates gene expression by promoter binding, enhancement of chromatin accessibility, and formation of novel super-enhancers. OC2 also activates glucuronidation genes that irreversibly disable androgen, thereby evoking phenotypic heterogeneity indirectly by hormone depletion. Pharmacologic inhibition of OC2 suppresses lineage plasticity reprogramming induced by the AR signaling inhibitor enzalutamide. These results demonstrate that OC2 activation promotes a range of drug resistance mechanisms associated with treatment-emergent lineage variation in PC. Our findings support enhanced efforts to therapeutically target this protein as a means of suppressing treatment-resistant disease.

Receptor-interacting protein kinase 2 (RIPK2) stabilizes c-Myc and is a therapeutic target in prostate cancer metastasis.

Despite progress in prostate cancer (PC) therapeutics, distant metastasis remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality from PC. Thus, there is growing recognition that preventing or delaying PC metastasis holds great potential for substantially improving patient outcomes. Here we show receptor-interacting protein kinase 2 (RIPK2) is a clinically actionable target for inhibiting PC metastasis. RIPK2 is amplified/gained in ~65% of lethal metastatic castration-resistant PC. Its overexpression is associated with disease progression and poor prognosis, and its genetic knockout substantially reduces PC metastasis. Multi-level proteomics analyses reveal that RIPK2 strongly regulates the stability and activity of c-Myc (a driver of metastasis), largely via binding to and activating mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7 (MKK7), which we identify as a direct c-Myc-S62 kinase. RIPK2 inhibition by preclinical and clinical drugs inactivates the noncanonical RIPK2/MKK7/c-Myc pathway and effectively impairs PC metastatic outgrowth. These results support targeting RIPK2 signaling to extend metastasis-free and overall survival.

Avian influenza viruses suppress innate immunity by inducing trans-transcriptional readthrough via SSU72.

Innate immunity plays critical antiviral roles. The highly virulent avian influenza viruses (AIVs) H5N1, H7N9, and H5N6 can better escape host innate immune responses than the less virulent seasonal H1N1 virus. Here, we report a mechanism by which transcriptional readthrough (TRT)-mediated suppression of innate immunity occurs post AIV infection. By using cell lines, mouse lungs, and patient PBMCs, we showed that genes on the complementary strand ("trans" genes) influenced by TRT were involved in the disruption of host antiviral responses during AIV infection. The trans-TRT enhanced viral lethality, and TRT abolishment increased cell viability and STAT1/2 expression. The viral NS1 protein directly bound to SSU72, and degradation of SSU72 induced TRT. SSU72 overexpression reduced TRT and alleviated mouse lung injury. Our results suggest that AIVs infection induce TRT by reducing SSU72 expression, thereby impairing host immune responses, a molecular mechanism acting through the NS1-SSU72-trans-TRT-STAT1/2 axis. Thus, restoration of SSU72 expression might be a potential strategy for preventing AIV pandemics.

γδ T Cells Provide Protective Function in Highly Pathogenic Avian H5N1 Influenza A Virus Infection.

Given the high mortality rate (>50%) and potential danger of intrapersonal transmission, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 epidemics still pose a significant threat to humans. γδ T cells, which participate on the front line of the host immune defense, demonstrate both innate, and adaptive characteristics in their immune response and have potent antiviral activity against various viruses. However, the roles of γδ T cells in HPAI H5N1 viral infection remain unclear. In this study, we found that γδ T cells provided a crucial protective function in the defense against HPAI H5N1 viral infection. HPAI H5N1 viruses could directly activate γδ T cells, leading to enhanced CD69 expression and IFN-γ secretion. Importantly, we found that the trimer but not the monomer of HPAI H5N1 virus hemagglutinin (HA) proteins could directly activate γδ T cells. HA-induced γδ T cell activation was dependent on both sialic acid receptors and HA glycosylation, and this activation could be inhibited by the phosphatase calcineurin inhibitor cyclosporin A but not by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K) inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002. Our findings provide a further understanding the mechanism underlying γδ T cell-mediated innate and adoptive immune responses against HPAI H5N1 viral infection, which helps to develop novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of H5N1 infection in the future.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from lethal avian influenza A H5N1 infections.

The potential for avian influenza H5N1 outbreaks has increased in recent years. Thus, it is paramount to develop novel strategies to alleviate death rates. Here we show that avian influenza A H5N1-infected patients exhibit markedly increased serum levels of angiotensin II. High serum levels of angiotensin II appear to be linked to the severity and lethality of infection, at least in some patients. In experimental mouse models, infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1 virus results in downregulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) expression in the lung and increased serum angiotensin II levels. Genetic inactivation of ACE2 causes severe lung injury in H5N1-challenged mice, confirming a role of ACE2 in H5N1-induced lung pathologies. Administration of recombinant human ACE2 ameliorates avian influenza H5N1 virus-induced lung injury in mice. Our data link H5N1 virus-induced acute lung failure to ACE2 and provide a potential treatment strategy to address future flu pandemics.

Copper oxide nanoparticles induce autophagic cell death in A549 cells.

Metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) are among the most highly produced nanomaterials, and have many diverse functions in catalysis, environmental remediation, as sensors, and in the production of personal care products. In this study, the toxicity of several widely used metal oxide NPs such as copper oxide, silica, titanium oxide and ferric oxide NPs, were evaluated In vitro. We exposed A549, H1650 and CNE-2Z cell lines to metal oxide NPs, and found CuO NPs to be the most toxic, SiO2 mild toxic, while the other metal oxide NPs had little effect on cell viability. Furthermore, the autophagic biomarker LC3-II significantly increased in A549 cells treated with CuO NPs, and the use of the autophagy inhibitors wortmannin and 3-methyladenin significantly improved cell survival. These results indicate that the cytoxicity of CuO NPs may involve the autophagic pathway in A549 cells.

Corticosteroid treatment ameliorates acute lung injury induced by 2009 swine origin influenza A (H1N1) virus in mice.

BACKGROUND: The 2009 influenza pandemic affected people in almost all countries in the world, especially in younger age groups. During this time, the debate over whether to use corticosteroid treatment in severe influenza H1N1 infections patients resurfaced and was disputed by clinicians. There is an urgent need for a susceptible animal model of 2009 H1N1 infection that can be used to evaluate the pathogenesis and the therapeutic effect of corticosteroid treatment during infection. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We intranasally inoculated two groups of C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice (using 4- or 6-to 8-week-old mice) to compare the pathogenesis of several different H1N1 strains in mice of different ages. Based on the results, a very susceptible 4-week-old C57BL/6 mouse model of Beijing 501 strain of 2009 H1N1 virus infection was established, showing significantly elevated lung edema and cytokine levels compared to controls. Using our established animal model, the cytokine production profile and lung histology were assessed at different times post-infection, revealing increased lung lesions in a time-dependent manner. In additional,the mice were also treated with dexamethasone, which significantly improved survival rate and lung lesions in infected mice compared to those in control mice. Our data showed that corticosteroid treatment ameliorated acute lung injury induced by the 2009 A/H1N1 virus in mice and suggested that corticosteroids are valid drugs for treating 2009 A/H1N1 infection. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Using the established, very susceptible 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) mouse model, our studies indicate that corticosteroids are a potential therapeutic remedy that may address the increasing concerns over future 2009 A/H1N1 pandemics.

Characterization of the 2009 pandemic A/Beijing/501/2009 H1N1 influenza strain in human airway epithelial cells and ferrets.

BACKGROUND: A novel 2009 swine-origin influenza A H1N1 virus (S-OIV H1N1) has been transmitted among humans worldwide. However, the pathogenesis of this virus in human airway epithelial cells and mammals is not well understood. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDING: In this study, we showed that a 2009 A (H1N1) influenza virus strain, A/Beijing/501/2009, isolated from a human patient, caused typical influenza-like symptoms including weight loss, fluctuations in body temperature, and pulmonary pathological changes in ferrets. We demonstrated that the human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial cell line A549 was susceptible to infection and that the infected cells underwent apoptosis at 24 h post-infection. In contrast to the seasonal H1N1 influenza virus, the 2009 A (H1N1) influenza virus strain A/Beijing/501/2009 induced more cell death involving caspase-3-dependent apoptosis in A549 cells. Additionally, ferrets infected with the A/Beijing/501/2009 H1N1 virus strain exhibited increased body temperature, greater weight loss, and higher viral titers in the lungs. Therefore, the A/Beijing/501/2009 H1N1 isolate successfully infected the lungs of ferrets and caused more pathological lesions than the seasonal influenza virus. Our findings demonstrate that the difference in virulence of the 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus and the seasonal H1N1 influenza virus in vitro and in vivo may have been mediated by different mechanisms. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Our understanding of the pathogenesis of the 2009 A (H1N1) influenza virus infection in both humans and animals is broadened by our findings that apoptotic cell death is involved in the cytopathic effect observed in vitro and that the pathological alterations in the lungs of S-OIV H1N1-infected ferrets are much more severe.

IL-17 response mediates acute lung injury induced by the 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus.

The 2009 flu pandemic involved the emergence of a new strain of a swine-origin H1N1 influenza virus (S-OIV H1N1) that infected almost every country in the world. Most infections resulted in respiratory illness and some severe cases resulted in acute lung injury. In this report, we are the first to describe a mouse model of S-OIV virus infection with acute lung injury and immune responses that reflect human clinical disease. The clinical efficacy of the antiviral oseltamivir (Tamiflu) administered in the early stages of S-OIV H1N1 infection was confirmed in the mouse model. Moreover, elevated levels of IL-17, Th-17 mediators and IL-17-responsive cytokines were found in serum samples of S-OIV-infected patients in Beijing. IL-17 deficiency or treatment with monoclonal antibodies against IL-17-ameliorated acute lung injury induced by the S-OIV H1N1 virus in mice. These results suggest that IL-17 plays an important role in S-OIV-induced acute lung injury and that monoclonal antibodies against IL-17 could be useful as a potential therapeutic remedy for future S-OIV H1N1 pandemics.

Inhibition of autophagy ameliorates acute lung injury caused by avian influenza A H5N1 infection.

The threat of a new influenza pandemic has existed since 1997, when the highly pathogenic H5N1 strain of avian influenza A virus infected humans in Hong Kong and spread across Asia, where it continued to infect poultry and people. The human mortality rate of H5N1 infection is about 60%, whereas that of seasonal H1N1 infection is less than 0.1%. The high mortality rate associated with H5N1 infection is predominantly a result of respiratory failure caused by acute lung injury; however, how viral infection contributes to this disease pathology is unclear. Here, we used electron microscopy to show the accumulation of autophagosomes in H5N1-infected lungs from a human cadaver and mice, as well as in infected A549 human epithelial lung cells. We also showed that H5N1, but not seasonal H1N1, induced autophagic cell death in alveolar epithelial cells through a pathway involving the kinase Akt, the tumor suppressor protein TSC2, and the mammalian target of rapamycin. Additionally, we suggest that the hemagglutinin protein of H5N1 may be responsible for stimulating autophagy. When applied prophylactically, reagents that blocked virus-induced autophagic signaling substantially increased the survival rate of mice and substantially ameliorated the acute lung injury and mortality caused by H5N1 infection. We conclude that the autophagic cell death of alveolar epithelial cells likely plays a crucial role in the high mortality rate of H5N1 infection, and we suggest that autophagy-blocking agents might be useful as prophylactics and therapeutics against infection of humans by the H5N1 virus.