Dual-mode 2 × 2 electro-optic switch on a SOI platform.

Mode-division multiplexing (MDM) technology is promising for enhancing the capacity of communication networks. In this Letter, we demonstrate a dual-mode 2 × 2 electro-optical switch on a silicon-on-insulator platform. The dual-mode Mach-Zehnder interferometer switch comprises of four p-i-n phase shifters and two mode-insensitive multimode interferences that can be used for TE0 and TE1, simultaneously. With π/2 phase shifters introduced, push-pull like operation enables the power consumption lower than 2.15 mW. The average insertion loss of the switch in "cross" and "bar" states are 1.31 dB ± 0.19 dB for the TE0 mode and 3.39 dB ± 0.16 dB for the TE1 mode, respectively. The cross talk is less than -16.47 dB in the C band. The compact dual-mode switch is promising to conduct a large-scale, flexible MDM system on chip.

Efficient four-wave mixing wavelength conversion in a hybrid silicon slot and polymer microring resonator.

We present a silicon slot microring resonator for efficient frequency conversion via four-wave mixing (FWM). The slot consists of a narrow silicon waveguide pair with a gap of 80 nm, which is filled with a nonlinear optical polymer. The group velocity dispersion for the microring is controlled by engineering the geometry of the slot structure. Because of the large buildup factor of the slot microring, an FWM conversion efficiency of -27.4 dB is achieved with an optical pump power of less than 1.0 mW. From the measured power dependence of FWM generation, a nonlinear refractive index coefficient of 1.31 × 10-17 m2 W-1 is obtained at a wavelength of 1562 nm. This work presents a hybrid silicon slot and polymer microring as a potential nonlinear device for applications in integrated photonic devices.

Efficient silicon and side-cladding waveguide modulator with electro-optic polymer.

Efficient electro-optic (EO) modulation can be generated in the hybrid silicon modulator with EO polymer in the form of an in-plane coplanar waveguide and electrode structure. Strong confinement of the optical field in the hybrid structure is critical to performing efficient electric poling and modulation of the EO polymer. The waveguide consists of silica-based side claddings and an EO core for increasing the integral of the optical field and the overlap interaction between the optical field and the modulated electric field within the EO polymer. We discuss in detail the volume resistivity dependence of the efficiency of electric poling and modulation for various side-cladding materials. In a Mach-Zehnder interferometer modulator, the measured half-wave-voltage length product (VπL) is 1.9 V·cm at an optical communication wavelength of 1,550 nm under the TE optical mode operation. The high-speed signaling of the device is demonstrated by generating on-off-keying transmission at signal rates up to 52 Gbit/s with a Q factor of 6.1 at a drive voltage of 2.0 Vpp.

Frequency correlated photon generation at telecom band using silicon nitride ring cavities.

Frequency entangled photon sources are in high demand in a variety of optical quantum technologies, including quantum key distribution, cluster state quantum computation and quantum metrology. In the recent decade, chip-scale entangled photon sources have been developed using silicon platforms, offering robustness, large scalability and CMOS technology compatibility. Here, we report the generation of frequency correlated photon pairs using a 150-GHz silicon nitride ring cavity. First, the device is characterized for studying the phase matching condition during spontaneous four-wave mixing. Next, we evaluate the joint spectrum intensity of the generated photons and confirm the photon pair generation in a total of 42 correlated frequency mode pairs, corresponding to a bandwidth of 51.25 nm. Finally, the experimental results are analyzed and the joint spectral intensity is quantified in terms of the phase matching condition.

Verified equivalent-circuit model for slot-waveguide modulators.

We formulate and experimentally validate an equivalent-circuit model based on distributed elements to describe the electric and electro-optic (EO) properties of travelling-wave silicon-organic hybrid (SOH) slot-waveguide modulators. The model allows to reliably predict the small-signal EO frequency response of the modulators exploiting purely electrical measurements of the frequency-dependent RF transmission characteristics. We experimentally verify the validity of our model, and we formulate design guidelines for an optimum trade-off between optical loss due to free-carrier absorption (FCA), electro-optic bandwidth, and π-voltage of SOH slot-waveguide modulators.

Camera sensor platform for high speed video data transmission using a wideband electro-optic polymer modulator.

In this work, 1 GHz video data was collected by a CMOS camera and successfully transmitted by the electro-optic (EO) modulator driven by an external modulation module integrated onto the same chip. For this application, the EO modulator component included a polymer waveguide modulator, which performed a 20 GHz bandwidth, clear eye diagram opening with a Q factor of 10.3 at 32 Gbit/s and a drive voltage of 1.5 Vpp. By utilizing a thermally stable EO polymer, the wide-band polymer modular can yield a photonic integrated camera sensor system which is a reliable processing platform for real-time data processing.

Plate-slot polymer waveguide modulator on silicon-on-insulator.

Electro-optic (EO) modulators are vital for efficient "electrical to optical" transitions and high-speed optical interconnects. In this work, we applied an EO polymer to demonstrate modulators on silicon-on-insulator substrates. The fabricated Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) and ring resonator consist of a Si and TiO2 slot, in which the EO polymer was embedded to realize a low-driving and large bandwidth modulation. The designed optical and electrical constructions are able to provide a highly concentrated TM mode with low propagation loss and effective EO properties. The fabricated MZI modulator shows a π-voltage-length product of 0.66 V·cm and a 3-dB bandwidth of 31 GHz. The measured EO activity is advantageous to exploit the ring modulator with a resonant tunability of 0.065 nm/V and a 3-dB modulation bandwidth up to 13 GHz.

Demonstration of long-term thermally stable silicon-organic hybrid modulators at 85 °C.

We report on the first demonstration of long-term thermally stable silicon-organic hybrid (SOH) modulators in accordance with Telcordia standards for high-temperature storage. The devices rely on an organic electro-optic sidechain polymer with a high glass transition temperature of 172 °C. In our high-temperature storage experiments at 85 °C, we find that the electro-optic activity converges to a constant long-term stable level after an initial decay. If we consider a burn-in time of 300 h, the π-voltage of the modulators increases on average by less than 15% if we store the devices for an additional 2400 h. The performance of the devices is demonstrated by generating high-quality 40 Gbit/s OOK signals both after the burn-in period and after extended high-temperature storage.

Silicon waveguide grating coupler based on a segmented grating structure.

We present the simulation, fabrication, and experimental results of a high-efficiency and wide-bandwidth segmented waveguide grating coupler on a silicon-on-insulator platform for near vertical optical coupling between the waveguide and optical fiber. The coupler comprises segmented gratings, which can increase vertical coupling to the optical fiber and reduce backward reflection. The proposed grating coupler has a 3 dB bandwidth of 71.4 nm and a coupling efficiency of 51.7% at a wavelength of 1550 nm. Compared with the standard uniform waveguide grating coupler, the coupling efficiency was improved by 25.64%.

Low driving voltage Mach-Zehnder interference modulator constructed from an electro-optic polymer on ultra-thin silicon with a broadband operation.

An electro-optic (EO) polymer waveguide using an ultra-thin silicon hybrid has been designed and fabricated. The silicon core has the thickness of 50 nm and a width of 5 µm. The waveguide was completed after covering the cladding with the high temperature stable EO polymer. We have demonstrated a low half-wavelength voltage of 0.9 V at the wavelength of 1.55 µm by using a Mach-Zehnder interference modulator with TM mode operation. The measured modulation corresponded to an effective in-device EO coefficient of 165 pm/V. By utilizing the traveling-wave electrode on the modulator the high-frequency response was tested up to 40 GHz. The 3 dB modulation bandwidth was measured to be 23 GHz. In addition, the high frequency sideband spectral measurement revealed that a linear response of the modulation index against the RF power was confirmed up to 40 GHz signal.

Efficiently poled electro-optic polymer modulators.

A titanium dioxide (TiO2) / electro-optic (EO) polymer hybrid waveguide modulator was designed and fabricated. This modulator possessed a significant advantage for realizing high poling efficiency regardless of the EO polymer resistivity. The in-device EO coefficient was measured to be 100 pm/V, which was 32% higher than that of the thin polymer film. As a result, the phase modulator displayed a VπL figure of merit of 3.5 V∙cm at 1550 nm, which can be reduced further in a push-pull Mach-Zehnder interferometer structure. Temporal stability test of the modulator at 85°C indicated only 8% change of Vπ over 500 hours. The propagation loss in the waveguide was measured as ~3 dB/cm.

TiO2 ring-resonator-based EO polymer modulator.

In this work, an electro-optic (EO) ring resonator modulator was designed and fabricated in a waveguide consisting of a titanium dioxide (TiO)2 core, silicon dioxide (SiO2) buffer layer, EO polymer claddings, and electrodes. By optimizing the thickness of the TiO2 and SiO2layers, the modulator could satisfy the single-mode requirement; furthermore 52.5% TM mode was confined in the active EO polymer layers. The designed modulator could also pole the EO polymer effectively regardless of its resistivity. Therefore, the EO modulator was observed to show a high resonance wavelength shift of 2.25 × 10(-2) nm/V. The intensity modulation at 1550 nm showed a Vp-p = 1.9 V for a 3dB distinction ratio.

Athermal silicon nitride ring resonator by photobleaching of Disperse Red 1-doped poly(methyl methacrylate) polymer.

To fabricate athermal silicon nitride waveguides, the dimensions of both the core and cladding, refractive index, and thermo-optic coefficients must be controlled precisely. We present a simple and effective method for the postfabrication trimming of silicon nitride ring resonators that overcomes the highly demanding fabrication. In order to manipulate the polymer's refractive index and thermo-optic coefficient, we bleached the Disperse Red 1-doped poly(methyl methacrylate) (DR1/PMMA) top cladding using UV irradiation. After a suitable bleaching time, the temperature-dependent wavelength shift of the ring resonator was reduced from -9.8 to -0.018 pm/°C, which is the lowest shift that we are aware of for an athermal waveguide realized by overlaying a polymer cladding to date.

Modification of two-photon excited fluorescence from quantum dots on SiN photonic crystals.

We investigate two-photon excited fluorescence from CdSe quantum dots with a center-emitting wavelength of 655 nm on SiN photonic crystals. We find that two-photon excited fluorescence is enhanced by more than 1 order of magnitude in the vertical direction when a photonic crystal is used compared to the fluorescence spectra in the absence of photonic crystals. The spectrum of two-photon excited fluorescence from quantum dots on SiN photonic crystal is observed to shift to blue compared to that from quantum dots on SiN without photonic crystals.

High-temperature-resistant silicon-polymer hybrid modulator operating at up to 200 Gbit s-1 for energy-efficient datacentres and harsh-environment applications.

To reduce the ever-increasing energy consumption in datacenters, one of the effective approaches is to increase the ambient temperature, thus lowering the energy consumed in the cooling systems. However, this entails more stringent requirements for the reliability and durability of the optoelectronic components. Herein, we fabricate and demonstrate silicon-polymer hybrid modulators which support ultra-fast single-lane data rates up to 200 gigabits per second, and meanwhile feature excellent reliability with an exceptional signal fidelity retained at extremely-high ambient temperatures up to 110 °C and even after long-term exposure to high temperatures. This is achieved by taking advantage of the high electro-optic (EO) activities (in-device n3r33 = 1021 pm V-1), low dielectric constant, low propagation loss (α, 0.22 dB mm-1), and ultra-high glass transition temperature (Tg, 172 °C) of the developed side-chain EO polymers. The presented modulator simultaneously fulfils the requirements of bandwidth, EO efficiency, and thermal stability for EO modulators. It could provide ultra-fast and reliable interconnects for energy-hungry and harsh-environment applications such as datacentres, 5G/B5G, autonomous driving, and aviation systems, effectively addressing the energy consumption issue for the next-generation optical communication.

Author Correction: High-temperature-resistant silicon-polymer hybrid modulator operating at up to 200 Gbit s-1 for energy-efficient datacentres and harsh-environment applications.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

A high efficiency silicon nitride waveguide grating coupler with a multilayer bottom reflector.

We propose a high efficiency apodized grating coupler with a bottom reflector for silicon nitride photonic integrated circuits. The reflector consists of a stack of alternate silicon nitride and silicon dioxide quarter-wave films. The design, fabrication and optical characterization of the couplers has been presented. The measured fiber to detector insertion loss was -3.5 dB which corresponds to a peak coupling efficiency of -1.75 dB. A 3 dB wavelength bandwidth of 76.34 nm was demonstrated for the grating coupler with a 20-layer reflector. The fabrication process is CMOS-compatible and requires only a single etching step.

Direct determination of photonic band structure for waveguiding modes in two-dimensional photonic crystals.

We directly determine the experimental photonic band dispersion structure of waveguiding modes under the light line in a two-dimensional photonic crystal (2D PhC) waveguide by using angle-resolved attenuated total reflection spectroscopy. Resonance coupling between the external evanescent wave from total reflection within the prism and the waveguiding modes in the 2D PhC provides clear information on individual band components by resolving the angle (i.e., wave vector k) and photon energy. The experimentally determined photonic band structure, which is essential for understanding the novel light propagation properties of PhC systems with many degrees of freedom, agrees well with the band structure predicted by theory. Furthermore, we demonstrate the accuracy and suitability of this method by analyzing field distribution and eigen-photon-energy calculations for a model structure identical to the experimental arrangement of the prism and sample structure.

A high-speed electro-optic triple-microring resonator modulator.

The coupling intensity modulator based on a triple-microring structure was proposed and numerically investigated for a high speed and a low bit error ratio (BER) operation. The modulator consists of a dual-microring optical cavity and a gate-microring energy feedback path. The optical cavity ensures a high energy storing efficiency, and the feedback path enables modulation with little intracavity energy decay. The bandwidth of 103 GHz and modulation depth of 6.2 dB at 2.0 Vpp were theoretically verified by the analysis of the sinusoidal modulation performance. Pulse modulation resulted in a data rate of 160 Gbps, an extinction ratio of 16.84 dB, and a BER of 1 × 10-8. The proposed modulator is applicable for compact, high-speed, and low-energy photonic integration.

A hybrid electro-optic polymer and TiO2 double-slot waveguide modulator.

An electro-optic (EO) modulator using a TiO2 slot hybrid waveguide has been designed and fabricated. Optical mode calculations revealed that the mode was primarily confined within the slots when using a double-slot configuration, thus achieving a high EO activity experimentally. The TiO2 slots also acted as an important barrier to induce an enhanced DC field during the poling of the EO polymer and the driving of the EO modulator. The hybrid phase modulator exhibited a driving voltage (Vπ) of 1.6 V at 1550 nm, which can be further reduced to 0.8 V in a 1 cm-long push-pull Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) structure. The modulator demonstrated a low propagation loss of 5 dB/cm and a relatively high end-fire coupling efficiency.