A road map to manual segmentation of cerebral structures.

Manual segmentation is an essential tool in the researcher's technical arsenal. It is a frequent practice necessary for image analysis in many protocols, especially in neuroimaging and comparative brain anatomy. In the framework of emergence of studies focusing on alternative animal models, manual segmentation procedures play a critical role. Nevertheless, this critical task is often assigned to students, a process that, unfortunately, tends to be time-consuming and repetitive. Well-conducted and well-described segmentation procedures can potentially guide novice and even expert operators and enhance research works' internal and external validity, making it possible to harmonize studies and facilitate data sharing. Furthermore, recent advances in neuroimaging, such as ex vivo imaging or ultra-high-field MRI, enable new acquisition modalities and the identification of minute structures that are barely visible with typical approaches. In this context of increasingly detailed and multimodal brain studies, reflecting on methodology is relevant and necessary. Because it is crucial to implement good practices in manual segmentation per se but also in the description of the segmentation procedures in research papers, we propose a general roadmap for optimizing the technique, its process and the reporting of manual segmentation. For each of them, the relevant elements of the literature have been collected and cited. The article is accompanied by a checklist that the reader can use to verify that the critical steps are being followed.

Morphology and phylogenetic implications of the inclinatores dorsales for the galeomorph sharks (Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii).

Elasmobranchs have been studied in anatomical terms for nearly 200 years, but several elements of their anatomy, such as the dorsal fin musculature, have not been completely addressed and still lack detailed descriptions. In this context, the present study investigates the anatomical variation of the muscles inclinatores dorsales across galeomorph sharks, shedding new light on their evolution. We have observed that the inclinatores dorsales have two distinct components, being composed of a profundus and a superficialis component. Additionally, we have uncovered, through an anatomical comparative analysis, that the variation present in these muscles is considerably greater than previously considered, indicating some characteristics never described before, for instance the presence or absence of the inclinatores dorsales at the free rear tip of the first dorsal fin. Moreover, our findings for the inclinatores dorsales are different from their previous interpretation in the context of the hypnosqualean hypothesis, reinforcing the need for a reevaluation of previous morphological characters. Lastly, we discuss our findings in relation to the most recent interrelationships of elasmobranchs.

Bronchial tree of the human embryo: Examination based on a mammalian model.

The symmetry of the right and left bronchi, proposed in a previous comparative anatomical study as the basic model of the mammalian bronchial tree, was examined to determine if it applied to the embryonic human bronchial tree. Imaging data of 41 human embryo specimens at Carnegie stages (CS) 16-23 (equivalent to 6-8 weeks after fertilization) belonging to the Kyoto collection were obtained using phase-contrast X-ray computed tomography. Three-dimensional bronchial trees were then reconstructed from these images. Bronchi branching from both main bronchi were labeled as dorsal, ventral, medial, or lateral systems based on the branching position with numbering starting cranially. The length from the tracheal bifurcation to the branching point of the labeled bronchus was measured, and the right-to-left ratio of the same labeled bronchus in both lungs was calculated. In both lungs, the human embryonic bronchial tree showed symmetry with an alternating pattern of dorsal and lateral systems up to segmental bronchus B9 as the basic shape, with a more peripheral variation. This pattern is similar to that described in adult human lungs. Bronchial length increased with the CS in all labeled bronchi, whereas the right-to-left ratio was constant at approximately 1.0. The data demonstrated that the prototype of the human adult bronchial branching structure is formed and maintained in the embryonic stage. The morphology and branching position of all lobar bronchi and B6, B8, B9, and the subsegmental bronchus of B10 may be genetically determined. On the other hand, no common structures between individual embryos were found in the peripheral branches after the subsegmental bronchus of B10, suggesting that branch formation in this region is influenced more by environmental factors than by genetic factors.

Increasing the impact of vertebrate scientific collections through 3D imaging: The openVertebrate (oVert) Thematic Collections Network.

The impact of preserved museum specimens is transforming and increasing by three-dimensional (3D) imaging that creates high-fidelity online digital specimens. Through examples from the openVertebrate (oVert) Thematic Collections Network, we describe how we created a digitization community dedicated to the shared vision of making 3D data of specimens available and the impact of these data on a broad audience of scientists, students, teachers, artists, and more. High-fidelity digital 3D models allow people from multiple communities to simultaneously access and use scientific specimens. Based on our multiyear, multi-institution project, we identify significant technological and social hurdles that remain for fully realizing the potential impact of digital 3D specimens.

Spatial arrangement of the whiskers of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) compared to whisker arrangements of house mice (Mus musculus) and brown rats (Rattus norvegicus).

Whiskers (vibrissae) are important tactile sensors for most mammals. We introduce a novel approach to quantitatively compare 3D geometry of whisker arrays across species with different whisker numbers and arrangements, focusing on harbor seals (Phoca vitulina), house mice (Mus musculus) and Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus). Whiskers of all three species decrease in arclength and increase in curvature from caudal to rostral. They emerge from the face with elevation angles that vary linearly with dorsoventral position, and with curvature orientations that vary diagonally as linear combinations of dorsoventral and rostrocaudal positions. In seals, this diagonal varies linearly with horizontal emergence angles, and is orthogonal to the diagonal for rats and mice. This work provides the first evidence for common elements of whisker arrangements across species in different mammalian orders. Placing the equation-based whisker array on a CAD model of a seal head enables future mechanical studies of whisker-based sensing, including wake-tracking.

Mapping cross-species connectome atlas of human and macaque striatum.

Cross-species connectome atlas (CCA) that can provide connectionally homogeneous and homologous brain nodes is essential and customized for cross-species neuroscience. However, existing CCAs were flawed in design and coarse-grained in results. In this study, a normative mapping framework of CCA was proposed and applied on human and macaque striatum. Specifically, all striatal voxels in the 2 species were mixed together and classified based on their represented and characterized feature of within-striatum resting-state functional connectivity, which was shared between the species. Six pairs of striatal parcels in these species were delineated in both hemispheres. Furthermore, this striatal parcellation was demonstrated by the best-matched whole-brain functional and structural connectivity between interspecies corresponding subregions. Besides, detailed interspecies differences in whole-brain multimodal connectivities and involved brain functions of these subregions were described to flesh out this CCA of striatum. In particular, this flexible and scalable mapping framework enables reliable construction of CCA of the whole brain, which would enable reliable findings in future cross-species research and advance our understandings into how the human brain works.

Organization of projections from the entorhinal cortex to the hippocampal formation of the Egyptian fruit bat Rousettus aegyptiacus.

The hippocampal formation and entorhinal cortex are crucially involved in learning and memory as well as in spatial navigation. The conservation of these structures across the entire mammalian lineage demonstrates their importance. Information on a diverse set of spatially tuned neurons has become available, but we only have a rudimentary understanding of how anatomical network structure affects functional tuning. Bats are the only order of mammals that have evolved true flight, and with this specialization comes the need to navigate and behave in a three dimensional (3D) environment. Spatial tuning of cells in the entorhinal-hippocampal network of bats has been studied for some time, but whether the reported tuning in 3D is associated with changes in the entorhinal-hippocampal network is not known. Here we investigated the entorhinal-hippocampal projections in the Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus), by injecting chemical anterograde tracers in the entorhinal cortex. Detailed analyses of the terminations of these projections in the hippocampus showed that both the medial and lateral entorhinal cortex sent projections to the molecular layer of all subfields of the hippocampal formation. Our analyses showed that the terminal distributions of entorhinal fibers in the hippocampal formation of Egyptian fruit bats-including the proximo-distal and longitudinal topography and the layer-specificity-are similar to what has been described in other mammalian species such as rodents and primates. The major difference in entorhinal-hippocampal projections that was described to date between rodents and primates is in the terminal distribution of the DG projection. We found that bats have entorhinal-DG projections that seem more like those in primates than in rodents. It is likely that the latter projection in bats is specialized to the behavioral needs of this species, including 3D flight and long-distance navigation.

Striatonigrostriatal connectivity-based cross-species parcellation of human and macaque substantia nigra.

Anatomical and functional heterogeneous substantia nigra (SN) has been extensively studied in humans and animals like rhesus monkeys given its crucial role in modulating a broad range of behaviors. Increasingly important cross-species research of SN may require connectionally homogeneous and homologous subregions of SN as objective and stable starting points from which the evolutionary characteristics of brain could be inspected. However, existing atlases of SN were all inaccurate mappings as a cross-species connectome atlas due to inadequate homology constraint during their constructions, and arbitrary paired use of these atlases might cause unreliable findings. In this study, a reliable blind-source cross-species parcellation of SN was developed based on the following rationale: striatonigrostriatal circuits form major structure of nigral connectivity; different nigral components have unique striatonigrostriatal connectivity; and inter-species corresponding human and macaque nigral components have similar striatonigrostriatal connectivity. Specifically, all voxels in human and macaque SN were grouped together and then classified based on inter-species identically characterized striatonigrostriatal connectivity attributes. Our results delineated a pars compacta-pars reticulate-like parcellation and further demonstrated its reliability by illustrating best-matched whole-brain structural and functional connectivity profiles of inter-species corresponding nigral subregions. Detailed inter-species and inter-regional differences in multi-aspect connectivities of these nigral subregions were inspected. It is expected that this cross-species connectome atlas of SN can offer biologically reliable cornerstones and important information to facilitate future cross-species research.

The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) prostate: a comprehensive histological and immunohistochemical investigation.

The prostate of the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), and of marsupials more generally, is the primary contributor of seminal fluid, yet comparatively little is known about its microanatomy or biochemistry. This study explored evidence of parenchymal segmentation of the koala prostate. The prostate of three sexually mature koalas were processed for histopathology, histochemistry (Masson's trichrome, Alcian Blue, periodic acid Schiff staining), and immunohistochemistry using basal (tumor protein 63, cytokeratin 14) and luminal (cytokeratin 8/18, prostate specific antigen, androgen receptor) markers. Results confirmed clear segmentation of the koala prostate into three zones, anterior, central, and posterior, characterized by differences in the proportion of glandular tissue, as well as the thickness of collagen fibers; there were also distinct differences in the secretions produced in each zone. Based on immunohistochemistry, the koala prostate showed evidence of both basal proliferative and luminal secretory cells. The ratio of cell types varied across the three segments, with the central segment housing the highest density of basal cells. Globular bodies produced in the anterior zone were shown to possess the same markers as those described for human prostasomes. This study is the first to comprehensively document the marsupial prostate in terms of microanatomy and corresponding immunohistochemistry. While further biochemical analysis, such as proteomics of each segment will better define the relative functions of each tissue, the data presented here are consistent with the hypothesis that the koala prostate potentially represents an example of an ontological stage in the evolutionary differentiation of male eutherian accessory glands.

Anatomically grounded estimation of hindlimb muscle sizes in Archosauria.

In vertebrates, active movement is driven by muscle forces acting on bones, either directly or through tendinous insertions. There has been much debate over how muscle size and force are reflected by the muscular attachment areas (AAs). Here we investigate the relationship between the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), a proxy for the force production of the muscle, and the AA of hindlimb muscles in Nile crocodiles and five bird species. The limbs were held in a fixed position whilst blunt dissection was carried out to isolate the individual muscles. AAs were digitised using a point digitiser, before the muscle was removed from the bone. Muscles were then further dissected and fibre architecture was measured, and PCSA calculated. The raw measures, as well as the ratio of PCSA to AA, were studied and compared for intra-observer error as well as intra- and interspecies differences. We found large variations in the ratio between AAs and PCSA both within and across species, but muscle fascicle lengths are conserved within individual species, whether this was Nile crocodiles or tinamou. Whilst a discriminant analysis was able to separate crocodylian and avian muscle data, the ratios for AA to cross-sectional area for all species and most muscles can be represented by a single equation. The remaining muscles have specific equations to represent their scaling, but equations often have a relatively high success at predicting the ratio of muscle AA to PCSA. We then digitised the muscle AAs of Coelophysis bauri, a dinosaur, to estimate the PCSAs and therefore maximal isometric muscle forces. The results are somewhat consistent with other methods for estimating force production, and suggest that, at least for some archosaurian muscles, that it is possible to use muscle AA to estimate muscle sizes. This method is complementary to other methods such as digital volumetric modelling.

Description and comparison of brain distribution of oxytocin receptors in Rhabdomys pumillio and Rhabdomys dilectus.

Oxytocin receptor (OXTR) distribution in the brain has been associated with different reproductive and social strategies of species. Rhabdomys pumilio (R. pumilio) and Rhabdomys dilectus (R. dilectus) are two sister rodent species that live in large/medium (but flexible) or small (mostly solitary) social groups respectively. In this study, we describe and compare the distribution of OXTR in these two species. OXTR binding in the brain of R. pumilio (8 females and 5 males) and R. dilectus (8 females and 5 males) adults was determined using autoradiography. Our results revealed significant differences in the nucleus accumbens, diagonal band, medial preoptic area, lateral habenula, superior colliculus, periaqueductal area and anterior paraventricular nucleus (higher in R. dilectus), and the dorsal lateral septum and anterior bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (higher in R. pumilio). OXTR density in other brain regions, such as the amygdala nuclei and hippocampus, did not differ between the two species. Sex differences were found in the medial preoptic area and ventral region of the lateral septum in R. pumilio (OXTR density higher in males) and in the anterior paraventricular thalamic nucleus, ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus and basolateral amygdala of R. dilectus (OXTR density higher in females). A sex difference in the density of OXTR was also found in the posterior region of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, where it was higher in males than in females of both species. This study shows species-specific brain distribution of OXTR in R. pumilio and R. dilectus that are unique, but with similarities with other polygynous or promiscuous rodent species that live in variable size groups, such as R. norvergicus, C. sociabilis, S. teguina and M. musculus.

Two new miniature translucent catfish species of the rare genus Tridens (Siluriformes: Trichomycteridae) from the Madeira River basin, northern Brazil.

Two new miniature species of the trichomycterid genus Tridens are described from the Madeira River drainage, Acre and Rondônia States, Brazil. Until this work, Tridens was a monotypic genus composed solely of Tridens melanops, from the Putumayo/Içá River drainage, upper Amazonas River basin. Tridens vitreus sp.n. is known from upper and middle Madeira River drainage and differs from all other congeners by the lack of pelvic fins and girdle and by vertebra and dorsal-fin ray counts. Tridens chicomendesi sp.n. is known from Abunã River, middle Madeira River drainage and is distinguished from all other congeners by the number of vertebrae, dorsal-fin ray count and anal-fin base colouration pattern. Tr. chicomendesi sp.n. is further distinguished from T. vitreus by a combination of character states regarding the position of urogenital opening, dorsal-fin position, anal-fin position, maxillary barbel length, number of premaxillary teeth, number of dorsal-fin rays, number of anal-fin rays, number of lateral-line system pores, frontal bone anatomy, degree of ossification of maxilla, anatomy of quadrate-hyomandibular joint, size of posterodorsal process of hyomandibula, length of opercular patch of odontodes, number of interopercular odontodes, proportion of upper hypural plate cartilage relative to its area ; by the absence of a proximal, distal and ventral cartilages on ventral hypohyal; by the absence of a lateral process on basibranchial 4; by the presence of a cartilage block on the lateral process of autopalatine, the presence of a well-developed ossification on proximal margin of ventral hypohyal, the presence of hypobranchial foramen; and by the presence of an anterior cartilaginous joint between quadrate and base of posterodorsal process of hyomandibula. This work represents the first species description for the subfamily Tridentinae in more than 30 years and for the genus Tridens since its original description in 1889.

Anatole-Felix Le Double (1848-1913): 110 years of his death.

Anatole-Félix Le Double was a prominent figure associated with the concept of anatomical variations also including the comprehension of their anthropological and zoological aspects. As an anatomist, Le Double contributed significantly with his major treatise regarding muscles and bony variants. Furthermore, Le Double influenced and popularized paleoanthropology and its relation to anatomy not only in France but in several parts of the world - promoting the idea that anatomical variations are not only surgically and clinically relevant but also have an evolutionary significance. To celebrate 110 years of his passing, this paper aims to explain his trajectory as a young physician to one of the most important figures in how anatomical variants are perceived today.

Anatomy education in Ottoman-Turkish veterinary schools during 19th century and Papier-Mache models.

Veterinary medicine was recognized as a scientific discipline for the first time in 1762 in France. After a while, the first Ottoman-Turkish veterinary school was established in 1842, primarily for the improvement and welfare of army horses. There is not much detailed information about the content of the anatomy education and materials in the early days of veterinary schools apart from the anecdote that Gurlt's illustrated anatomy books were being used. The purpose of this study is to research anatomy education in the 19th century, when Ottoman-Turkish veterinary medicine was established, as well as the Papier-mâché models used in anatomy education, searching primary and secondary sources that can be accessed online. It has been determined that the normal and pathological anatomy models of humans and various domestic animals made by Dr. Auzoux were ordered to be used in the anatomy education of the newly established veterinary schools. The whereabouts of these models, which did not reference in publications until now, are unknown. However, examining these models is regarded to be crucial for understanding the veterinary anatomy perspective and educational content of the period.

The fibro- and cyto-architecture demarcating the border between the dentate gyrus and CA3 in sheep (Ovis aries) and domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus).

The hippocampal formation is essential for spatial navigation and episodic memory. The anatomical structure is largely similar across mammalian species, apart from the deep polymorphic layer of the dentate gyrus and the adjacent part of cornu ammonis 3 (CA3) which feature substantial variations. In rodents, the polymorphic layer has a triangular cross-section abutting on the end of the CA3 pyramidal layer, while in primates it is long and band-shaped capping the expanded CA3 end, which here lacks a distinct pyramidal layer. This structural variation has resulted in a confusing nomenclature and unclear anatomical criteria for the definition of the dentate-ammonic border. Seeking to clarify the border, we present here a light microscopic investigation based on Golgi-impregnated and Timm-thionin-stained sections of the Artiodactyla sheep and domestic pig, in which the dentate gyrus and CA3 end have some topographical features in common with primates. In short, the band-shaped polymorphic layer coincides with the Timm-positive mossy fiber collateral plexus and the Timm-negative subgranular zone. While the soma and excrescence-covered proximal dendrites of the mossy cells are localized within the plexus, the peripheral mossy cell dendrites extend outside the plexus, both into the granular and molecular layers, and the CA3. The main mossy fibers leave the collateral plexus in a scattered formation to converge gradually through the CA3 end in between the dispersed pyramidal cells, which are of three subtypes, as in monkey, with the classical apical subtype dominating near the hidden blade, the nonapical subtype near the exposed blade, and the dentate subtype being the only pyramidal cells that extend dendrites into the dentate gyrus. In agreement with our previous study in mink, the findings show that the border between the dentate gyrus and the CA3 end can be more accurately localized by the mossy fiber system than by cyto-architecture alone.

Comparative anatomy on the development of sperm transporting pathway between the testis and mesonephros.

The male genital tract is diverse among vertebrates, but its development remains unclear, especially in the rete region. In this study, we investigated the testis-mesonephros complex of rabbit, chicken, and frog (Xenopus tropicalis) by immunohistochemistry for markers such as Ad4BP/Sf-1 (gonadal somatic and rete cells in mammals) and Pax2 (mesonephric tubules), and performed a three-dimensional reconstruction. In all investigated animals, testis cords were bundled at the mesonephros side. Rete cells positive for Ad4BP/Sf-1 (rabbit) or Pax2 (chicken and frog) were clustered at the border region between the testis and mesonephros. The cluster possessed two types of cords; one connected to the testis cords and the other to the mesonephric tubules. The latter rete cords were contiguous to Bowman's capsules in rabbit and chicken but to nephrostomes in frog. In conclusion, this study showed that mammals, avian species, and frogs commonly develop the bundle between the testis cords (testis canal) and the cluster of rete cells (lateral kidney canal), indicating that these animals share basic morphogenesis in the male genital tract. The connection site between the rete cells and mesonephric tubules is suggested to have changed from the nephrostome to the Bowman's capsule during vertebrate evolution from anamniote to amniote.

Muscular anatomy of the forelimb of tiger (Panthera tigris).

Dissection reports of large cats (family Felidae) have been published since the late 19th century. These reports generally describe the findings in words, show drawings of the dissection, and usually include some masses of muscles, but often neglect to provide muscle maps showing the precise location of bony origins and insertions. Although these early reports can be highly useful, the absence of visual depictions of muscle attachment sites makes it difficult to compare muscle origins and insertions in living taxa and especially to reconstruct muscle attachments in fossil taxa. Recently, more muscle maps have been published in the primary literature, but those for large cats are still limited. Here, we describe the muscular anatomy of the forelimb of the tiger (Panthera tigris), and compare muscle origins, insertions, and relative muscle masses to other felids to identify differences that may reflect functional adaptations. Our results reiterate the conservative nature of felid anatomy across body sizes and behavioral categories. We find that pantherines have relatively smaller shoulder muscle masses, and relatively larger muscles of the caudal brachium, pronators, and supinators than felines. The muscular anatomy of the tiger shows several modifications that may reflect an adaptation to terrestrial locomotion and a preference for large prey. These include in general a relatively large m. supraspinatus (shoulder flexion), an expanded origin for m. triceps brachii caput longum, and relatively large m. triceps brachii caput laterale (elbow extension), as well as relatively large mm. brachioradialis, abductor digiti I longus, and abductor digiti V. Muscle groups that are well developed in scansorial taxa are not well developed in the tiger, including muscles of the cranial compartment of the brachium and antebrachium, and m. anconeus. Overall, the musculature of the tiger strongly resembles that of the lion (Panthera leo), another large-bodied terrestrial large-prey specialist.

A method to identify, dissect and stain equine neuromuscular junctions for morphological analysis.

Morphological study of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), a specialised peripheral synapse formed between a lower motor neuron and skeletal muscle fibre, has significantly contributed to the understanding of synaptic biology and neuromuscular disease pathogenesis. Rodent NMJs are readily accessible, and research into conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT), and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) has relied heavily on experimental work in these small mammals. However, given that nerve length dependency is an important feature of many peripheral neuropathies, these rodent models have clear shortcomings; large animal models might be preferable, but their size presents novel anatomical challenges. Overcoming these constraints to study the NMJ morphology of large mammalian distal limb muscles is of prime importance to increase cross-species translational neuromuscular research potential, particularly in the study of long motor units. In the past, NMJ phenotype analysis of large muscle bodies within the equine distal pelvic limb, such as the tibialis cranialis, or within muscles of high fibrous content, such as the soleus, has posed a distinct experimental hurdle. We optimised a technique for NMJ location and dissection from equine pelvic limb muscles. Using a quantification method validated in smaller species, we demonstrate their morphology and show that equine NMJs can be reliably dissected, stained and analysed. We reveal that the NMJs within the equine soleus have distinctly different morphologies when compared to the extensor digitorum longus and tibialis cranialis muscles. Overall, we demonstrate that equine distal pelvic limb muscles can be regionally dissected, with samples whole-mounted and their innervation patterns visualised. These methods will allow the localisation and analysis of neuromuscular junctions within the muscle bodies of large mammals to identify neuroanatomical and neuropathological features.

Bone microstructure and bone mineral density are not systemically different in Antarctic icefishes and related Antarctic notothenioids.

Ancestors of the Antarctic icefishes (family Channichthyidae) were benthic and had no swim bladder, making it energetically expensive to rise from the ocean floor. To exploit the water column, benthopelagic icefishes were hypothesized to have evolved a skeleton with "reduced bone," which gross anatomical data supported. Here, we tested the hypothesis that changes to icefish bones also occurred below the level of gross anatomy. Histology and micro-CT imaging of representative craniofacial bones (i.e., ceratohyal, frontal, dentary, and articular) of extant Antarctic fish species specifically evaluated two features that might cause the appearance of "reduced bone": bone microstructure (e.g., bone volume fraction and structure linear density) and bone mineral density (BMD, or mass of mineral per volume of bone). Measures of bone microstructure were not consistently different in bones from the icefishes Chaenocephalus aceratus and Champsocephalus gunnari, compared to the related benthic notothenioids Notothenia coriiceps and Gobionotothen gibberifrons. Some quantitative measures, such as bone volume fraction and structure linear density, were significantly increased in some icefish bones compared to homologous bones of non-icefish. However, such differences were rare, and no microstructural measures were consistently different in icefishes across all bones and species analyzed. Furthermore, BMD was similar among homologous bones of icefish and non-icefish Antarctic notothenioids. In summary, "reduced bone" in icefishes was not due to systemic changes in bone microstructure or BMD, raising the prospect that "reduced bone" in icefish occurs only at the gross anatomic level (i.e., smaller or fewer bones). Given that icefishes exhibit delayed skeletal development compared to non-icefish Antarctic fishes, combining these phenotypic data with genomic data might clarify genetic changes driving skeletal heterochrony.

On the importance of integrating comparative anatomy and One Health perspectives in anatomy education.

As a result of many factors, including climate change, unrestricted population growth, widespread deforestation and intensive agriculture, a new pattern of diseases in humans is emerging. With increasing encroachment by human societies into wild domains, the interfaces between human and animal ecosystems are gradually eroding. Such changes have led to zoonoses, vector-borne diseases, infectious diseases and, most importantly, the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant microbial strains as challenges for human health. Now would seem to be an opportune time to revisit old concepts of health and redefine some of these in the light of emerging challenges. The One Health concept addresses some of the demands of modern medical education by providing a holistic approach to explaining diseases that result from a complex set of interactions between humans, environment and animals, rather than just an amalgamation of isolated signs and symptoms. An added advantage is that the scope of One Health concepts has now expanded to include genetic diseases due to advancements in omics technology. Inspired by such ideas, a symposium was organised as part of the 19th International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) Congress (August 2019) to investigate the scope of One Health concepts and comparative anatomy in contemporary medical education. Speakers with expertise in both human and veterinary anatomy participated in the symposium and provided examples where these two disciplines, which have so far evolved largely independent of each other, can collaborate for mutual benefit. Finally, the speakers identified some key concepts of One Health that should be prioritised and discussed the diverse opportunities available to integrate these priorities into a broader perspective that would attempt to explain and manage diseases within the scopes of human and veterinary medicine.