Osteomyelitis by Microsporum canis and Staphylococcus spp. in cat (Felis catus) - case report.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus spp and Microsporum canis are zoonotic microorganisms which can cause infections and systemic diseases. The bone infection is usually caused by invasion of pathogen through the hematologic route. Mixed osteomyelitis caused by bacteria and fungi is rare, and to date, there have been no reports of mixed osteomyelitis with Staphylococcus spp. and Microsporum canis. CASE PRESENTATION: This essay reports an atypical presentation of mixed osteomyelitis (Staphylococcus spp. and Microsporum canis) in a domestic cat. A 15-month-old female Persian cat was presented to a veterinary service; the main complaint was the appearance of a nodule in the mandibular ventral rostral region. A radiographic exam performed on the animal showed proliferative and osteolytic bone lesions. The patient was submitted to a biopsy for histopathological evaluation, along with bacterial and fungal cultures. Results showed mixed osteomyelitis by Staphylococcus spp. and Microsporum canis. Microbial Sensitivity Test was performed to choose a more suitable treatment. Two surgical procedures were executed to resect and curette the lesion, and treatments with anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, and antifungal drugs were established, showing a positive clinical evolution. After 8 months of treatment, the patient's owner moved to a different city, and the animal was seen by other veterinarians, who followed along with the same treatment. However, due to complications and a diminishing quality of life over 4 years of diagnosis, the patient was euthanized. CONCLUSION: Given the above, mixed osteomyelitis is difficult to treat and can cause losses of life quality resulting death, especially in infections where M. canis is the agent causing the disease. Bacterial osteomyelitis is more frequently reported. But the lack of investigation of microorganisms other than bacteria, such as fungal cases, may imply in underdiagnosed cases. Treatment of osteomyelitis can be difficult considering the difficulties in isolating the pathological agent, resistance to the drug used, prolonged treatment time, and cost.

Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis related Enterococcus cecorum isolates are genetically distinct from the commensal population and are more virulent in an embryo mortality model.

Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) is a common cause of broiler lameness. Bacteria that are found in BCO lesions are intestinal bacteria that are proposed to have translocated through the intestinal epithelium and have spread systemically. One of the specific bacterial species frequently isolated in BCO cases is Enterococcus cecorum. In the current study, caecal isolates were obtained from birds derived from healthy flocks (12 isolates from 6 flocks), while isolates derived from caeca, colon, pericardium, caudal thoracic vertebrae, coxo-femoral joint, knee joint and intertarsal joint (hock) were obtained from broilers derived from BCO outbreaks (111 isolates from 10 flocks). Pulsed field gel electrophoresis was performed to determine similarity. Clonal E. cecorum populations were isolated from different bones/joints and pericardium from animals within the same flock, with intestinal strains carrying the same pulsotype, pointing to the intestinal origin of the systemically present bacteria. Isolates from the intestinal tract of birds from healthy flocks clustered away from the BCO strains. Isolates from the gut, bones/joints and pericardium of affected animals contained a set of genes that were absent in isolates from the gut of healthy animals, such as genes encoding for enterococcal polysaccharide antigens (epa genes), cell wall structural components and nutrient transporters. Isolates derived from the affected birds induced a significant higher mortality in the embryo mortality model as compared to the isolates from the gut of healthy birds, pointing to an increased virulence.

Osteomyelitis caused by Aspergillus terreus complex in a dog: a case report.

BACKGROUND: In dogs, the most frequently reported mycosis associated with Aspergillus spp. are respiratory infections. Systemic aspergillosis is uncommon, with reported cases been associated with several Aspergillus species. Aspergillus terreus species complex are ubiquitous organisms, unfrequently associated with local or systemic disease in animals and humans, and treatment of osteomyelitis caused by this species is usually unfavorable. CASE PRESENTATION: This case report describes the case of a 5-year-old dog, referred to the Veterinary Hospital of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Lisbon, Portugal, with a history of lameness of the right thoracic limb. Radiographs and CT scan revealed two different lesions on right humerus and radio, which were biopsied. The samples collected were submitted to cytological and histopathological evaluation and bacterial and mycological culture. Environmental samples, including of the surgery room and of the biopsy needle were also evaluated for the presence of fungi. Regarding biopsy samples, bacterial culture was negative, but mycological analysis originated a pure culture of a fungal species later identified as Aspergillus terreus by Sanger sequencing. Results were compatible with histopathologic examination, which revealed periosteal reaction and invasion of hyphae elements. Also, mycological analysis of both environmental samples evaluated were negative. The virulence profile of the fungal isolate was phenotypically characterized using specific media, allowing to reveal its ability to produce several enzymes involved in its pathogenicity, namely lipase, hemolysin and DNAse, corresponding to a Virulence Index (V. Index.) of 0.43. The patient was submitted to itraconazole therapy for 8 weeks. After 3 weeks, the patient showed significant clinical improvement, and after 6 weeks no radiographic signs were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Antifungal therapy with itraconazole can contribute to the remission of canine infections promoted by Aspergillus terreus complex with a relevant V. Index.

COMPLETE UNILATERAL MAXILLECTOMY IN A COHORT OF FIVE COLOMBIAN BOAS (BOA IMPERATOR).

Five unrelated adult Colombian boas (Boa imperator) presented with a 1- to 3-mon history of unilateral rostral swelling of the maxilla associated with a chronic rubbing against the enclosure's walls. Moderate to severe gingival inflammation and ulceration of the labial mucosa were present at the level of the swelling with tenderness to the touch. Radiography revealed osteolytic or proliferative lesions of the maxillary bone. Chronic maxillary osteomyelitis was diagnosed. Unilateral maxillectomy was performed on each animal under general anesthesia. Local anesthesia was also achieved by infiltrating lidocaine along the medial and lateral aspect of the maxillary gingiva and at the level of the maxillo-ectopterygoid joint. Using a lateral gingival approach, the maxillo-prefrontal, maxillary-palatine, and maxillo-ectopterygoid attachments were transected, and the maxillary bone removed. Histologic examination revealed pyogranulomatous stomatitis and osteomyelitis in all snakes, and presence of intralesional bacteria (n = 3 snakes). Gram-negative bacteria (Chryseobacterium indologenes and Proteus mirabilis) were cultured from the resected tissue of two snakes. One snake suffered from wound dehiscence 5 d postoperatively. All snakes were fed 15 d postoperatively and ingested dead mice without apparent difficulties. One snake was examined 2 mon and 1 yr after surgery, with no evidence of soft tissue or osseous infection and only minor facial scaring; all other snakes were lost to follow-up 15 d after surgery. Unilateral maxillectomy was performed in a cohort of five Colombian boas suffering from maxillary osteomyelitis. This surgical technique should be considered as an alternative to medical treatment in boid snakes.

RNA-seq reveals downregulated osteochondral genes potentially related to tibia bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis in broilers.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) develops in the growth plate (GP) of the proximal femur and tibia and is initiated by damage to the less mineralized chondrocytes followed by colonization of opportunistic bacteria. This condition affects approximately 1% of all birds housed, being considered one of the major causes of lameness in fast growing broilers. Although several studies have been previously performed aiming to understand its pathogenesis, the molecular mechanisms involved with BCO remains to be elucidated. Therefore, this study aimed to generate a profile of global differential gene expression involved with BCO in the tibia of commercial broilers, through RNA sequencing analysis to identity genes and molecular pathways involved with BCO in chickens. RESULTS: Our data showed 192 differentially expressed (DE) genes: 63 upregulated and 129 downregulated in the GP of the tibia proximal epiphysis of BCO-affected broilers. Using all DE genes, six Biological Processes (BP) were associated with bone development (connective tissue development, cartilage development, skeletal system development, organ morphogenesis, system development and skeletal system morphogenesis). The analyses of the upregulated genes did not indicate any significant BP (FDR < 0.05). However, with the downregulated genes, the same BP were identified when using all DE genes in the analysis, with a total of 26 coding genes explaining BCO in the tibia: ACAN, ALDH1A2, CDH7, CHAD, CHADL, COL11A1, COMP, CSGALNACT1, CYR61, FRZB, GAL3ST1, HAPLN1, IHH, KIF26B, LECT1, LPPR1, PDE6B, RBP4A, SERINC5, SFRP1, SOX8, SOX9, TENM2, THBS1, UCHL1 and WFIKKN2. In addition, seven transcription factors were also associated to BCO: NFATC2, MAFB, HIF1A-ARNT, EWSR1-FLI1, NFIC, TCF3 and NF-KAPPAB. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that osteochondral downregulated genes are potential molecular causes of BCO in broilers, and the bacterial process seems to be, in fact, a secondary condition. Sixteen genes responsible for bone and cartilage formation were downregulated in BCO-affected broilers being strong candidate genes to trigger this disorder.

Vertebral fracture due to Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae osteomyelitis in a weaner.

BACKGROUND: Osteomyelitis is relatively frequent in young pigs and a few bacterial species have been postulated to be potential causative agents. Although Actinobacillus (A.) pleuropneumoniae has been sporadically described to cause osteomyelitis, typically, actinobacillosis is characterized by respiratory symptoms. Nevertheless, subclinical infections are a challenging problem in pig herds. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first case description that reports clinical, diagnostic imaging, pathological and histopathological findings of vertebral osteomyelitis in a pig and first describes A. pleuropneumoniae as the causative agent identified by advanced molecular methods. CASE PRESENTATION: An eight-week-old female weaner was presented with a non-ambulatory tetraparesis. The neurological signs were consistent with a lesion in the C6-T2 spinal cord segments. Imaging studies revealed a collapse of the seventh cervical vertebral body (C7) with a well demarcated extradural space-occupying mass ventrally within the vertebral canal severely compressing the spinal cord. Post-mortem examination identified an abscess and osteomyelitis of C7 and associated meningitis and neuritis with subsequent pathological fracture of C7 and compression of the spinal cord. In the microbiological analysis, A. pleuropneumoniae was identified using PCR and DNA sequence analysis. CONCLUSIONS: A. pleuropneumoniae can be responsible for chronic vertebral abscess formation with subsequent pathological fracture and spinal cord compression in pigs.

RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF SURGICAL TREATMENT OF REFRACTIVE OSTEOMYELITIS AND INFECTIOUS ARTHRITIS IN THE FLIPPERS OF SEALS IN THE NETHERLANDS.

Amputation surgery in pinniped rehabilitation centers is a feasible procedure when animals are presented with open fractures, osteomyelitis, and/or infectious arthritis of the flippers that appear to be refractory to medical treatment. From 2011 to 2017, the Sealcentre Pieterburen in The Netherlands admitted 3,775 seals for rehabilitation. Of these, 37 individuals presented clinical and radiologic signs of bone abnormalities indicative of osteomyelitis or infectious arthritis refractory to medical treatment. Seven cases resulted in euthanasia, and 30 cases underwent amputation surgery. The surgical procedure involved amputation of part of a flipper (24; two animals twice) or of a complete flipper (eight). All procedures were done under general anesthesia except one that was performed with local anesthesia, and all 30 animals were released. In two cases, the osteomyelitis presented with the rare Totenlade phenomenon, a sequestrum surrounded by new periosteal bone formation. The purpose of this retrospective study was to evaluate the outcome of the operative treatment of osteomyelitis and infectious arthritis in the flippers of harbor (Phoca vitulina) and grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) during this 6-yr period.

Septic Arthritis and Osteomyelitis Caused by Chryseobacterium indologenes in a Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) and a Ring-Billed Gull (Larus delawarensis).

A 20-year-old female mute swan (Cygnus olor) originally in a flock of free-living swans on a Long Island, New York, lake, was presented for facial swelling and decreased appetite. An adult male ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) was also presented to the same wildlife rescue center for bilateral lameness of 1-week duration. Once referred for veterinary evaluation and care, both species were diagnosed with septic arthritis and osteomyelitis caused by Chryseobacterium indologenes and treated with orbifloxacin until complete recovery. Chryseobacterium indologenes is infrequently diagnosed as an opportunistic pathogen in human medicine, and less so in veterinary medicine. In human patients, this bacterium is the cause of various infections, including meningitis, pneumonia, and implant failure. However, in veterinary medicine its pathogenicity has only been reported in fish, and sporadically mentioned as a culture result in tree frogs and turtles, where it was generally considered insignificant. In this report a clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of osteomyelitis and septic arthritis caused by C indologenes is described in 1 anseriforme and in 1 charadriiforme species.

Pathology in the appendicular bones of southern tamandua, Tamandua tetradactyla (Xenarthra, Pilosa): injuries to the locomotor system and first case report of osteomyelitis in anteaters.

BACKGROUND: The southern tamandua, Tamandua tetradactyla (Linnaeus, 1758), is the most common species of anteater. Even though much is known about its ecology, behavior, and parasites, there is very limited information about bone diseases in Tamandua and other anteaters. Here, we examined postcranial skeletons of 64 T. tetradactyla museum specimens covering most of the material available in Brazilian collections. RESULTS: The following bone diseases were identified for the first time in Tamandua and other extant and fossil vermilinguans: osteophytes, osteitis, osteoarthritis, periostitis, exostoses, enthesopathies, and a severe chronic pyogenic osteomyelitis associated with fistulae, cloacae (pus), bone loss, and neoformation processes. Musculoskeletal reconstruction revealed that an old specimen was restricted to terrestrial locomotion due to osteopathological processes that impaired its climbing. CONCLUSIONS: New osteopathological informations are presented for T. tetradactyla, favoring a better understanding of the expression of some bone diseases in wild animals. In addition, the diagnosis of these bone diseases in living anteaters provides useful information for studies on animal health and welfare, as well as contributing to the more effective recognition of paleodiseases in fossil xenarthrans.

Surgical intervention for vertebral osteomyelitis in a calf.

OBJECTIVE: To report the surgical treatment and outcome of a non-ambulatory calf with cervical vertebral ostoeomyelitis. STUDY DESIGN: Clinical report. SAMPLE POPULATION: One 3.5-month-old female mixed-breed calf with tetraparesis of 3 months duration. METHODS: After computed tomography-guided bone biopsy, a bacterial osteolytic lesion within the body of the fourth cervical vertebrae (C4) and resultant pathologic compression fracture clinically resulting in full tetraparesis was diagnosed in the calf. Culture results from the lesion within C4 confirmed a diagnosis of Trueperella pyogenes. RESULTS: Poor response to medical management justified surgical debridment of the lesion in C4 and subsequent stabilization of the cervical vertebral column. A three-part procedure was performed including (1) debridement of the C4, (2) bilateral ventral vertebral stabilization from C3 to C5, and (3) placement of ampicillin-impregnated plaster of Paris beads within the body of C4. With postoperative physical rehabilitation, the calf regained full ambulatory function. At 1-month follow-up, the calf remained ambulatory with mild proprioceptive ataxia and no evidence of implant failure. At annual recheck, the calf had gained 208 kg and remained fully ambulatory with no residual neurologic deficits. CONCLUSION: Surgical intervention and use of antibiotic-impregnated implants offered a viable alternative to long-term medical management of vertebral osteomyelitis in the calf reported here. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This case identifies surgical intervention as a potential means for improving outcomes in a historically fatal condition of production animals.

Kinetic Modelling of [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-Siglec-9 in Porcine Osteomyelitis and Soft Tissue Infections.

BACKGROUND: [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-Siglec-9 is a positron emission tomography (PET) radioligand for vascular adhesion protein 1 (VAP-1), a protein involved in leukocyte trafficking. The tracer facilitates the imaging of inflammation and infection. Here, we studied the pharmacokinetic modelling of [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-Siglec-9 in osteomyelitis and soft tissue infections in pigs. METHODS: Eight pigs with osteomyelitis and soft tissue infections in the right hind limb were dynamically PET scanned for 60 min along with arterial blood sampling. The fraction of radioactivity in the blood accounted for by the parent tracer was evaluated with radio-high-performance liquid chromatography. One- and two-tissue compartment models were used for pharmacokinetic evaluation. Post-mortem soft tissue samples from one pig were analysed with anti-VAP-1 immunofluorescence. In each analysis, the animal's non-infected left hind limb was used as a control. RESULTS: Tracer uptake was elevated in soft tissue infections but remained low in osteomyelitis. The kinetics of [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-Siglec-9 followed a reversible 2-tissue compartment model. The tracer metabolized quickly; however, taking this into account, produced more ambiguous results. Infected soft tissue samples showed endothelial cell surface expression of the Siglec-9 receptor VAP-1. CONCLUSION: The kinetics of [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-Siglec-9 uptake in porcine soft tissue infections are best described by the 2-tissue compartment model.

Multicentric Septic Osteomyelitis and Arthritis Caused by Staphylococcus aureus in a Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus).

An adult female gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) was presented with a right-wing droop and weight loss. Radiographic images revealed osteolysis and osseous proliferation of the right shoulder and the mobile vertebra between the notarium and synsacrum. The tentative diagnosis was vertebral osteomyelitis secondary to septic arthritis. The bird did not respond to antibiotic and anti-inflammatory therapy and represented 10 days later, with feathers soiled with feces, an impacted, dilated cloaca, and an inability to stand due to spastic paralysis of the hind legs. The bird's condition did not improve with 24 hours of supportive care and its quality of life was considered poor; therefore, the patient was euthanatized and submitted for postmortem examination. Multicentric septic osteomyelitis and arthritis were confirmed in the mobile vertebra between the notarium and synsacrum and the right shoulder. Despite 10 days of antibiotic therapy, Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from within the 2 locations in which septic osteomyelitis and arthritis were identified. This report describes the clinical features, diagnosis, and pathologic findings of septic osteomyelitis and arthritis caused by S aureus in a falcon.

Genetic diversity and antimicrobial resistance profile of Enterococcus faecalis isolated from broilers with vertebral osteomyelitis in Southeast Brazil.

Vertebral osteomyelitis (VO) is a worldwide emerging disease that affects broilers. Recently, the isolation of Enterococcus faecalis in cases of the disease has been described. This study aimed at determining the genetic diversity and antimicrobial resistance profile of 12 E. faecalis strains isolated from broilers with VO. Strains were isolated from nine flocks from six farms in a high-density poultry production area in Southeast Brazil and were evaluated using multilocus sequence typing and phylogenetic analysis. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests and PCR were performed to detect antimicrobial resistance genes. E. faecalis isolates belonged to different sequence types (ST), six of which (ST49, ST100, ST116, ST202, ST249, and ST300) have been previously described. Strains ST708 and ST709 were newly identified in this study. Strain ST49 was most frequently isolated (50% of the flocks) from the analysed VO cases. No phylogenetic or phylogeographic relationship was found among the strains. The VO isolated E. faecalis strains showed highest resistance to aminoglycosides, mainly gentamicin (40%), but were highly susceptible to vancomycin (10%). Aminoglycoside resistance genes were detected in seven E. faecalis strains, and AAC6'-APH2″ genes were most frequently detected. The results showed that E. faecalis strains isolated from recently reported VO cases were highly diverse genetically. The diversity of genotypes in circulation in the analysed flocks, without apparent relationship among them, raises questions on aetiopathogenesis of the disease in broilers and evolutionary aspects of E. faecalis.

Escherichia coli isolates from femoral bone marrow of broilers exhibit diverse pheno- and genotypic characteristics that do not correlate with macroscopic lesions of bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis.

The pheno- and genotypic relatedness among Escherichia coli isolates from broilers with and without macroscopic lesions of the femoral head were investigated. In total, 219 isolates obtained from the bone marrow were characterized by serotyping, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles, phylogenetic grouping, detection of virulence-associated genes (VAGs) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Serotyping revealed that 48.4% of the isolates were assigned to one of the three serotypes (O78:K80: 21.0%, O2:K1: 18.7%, O1:K1: 8.7%). Substantial phenotypic variation was also noticed in AMR testing as most of the birds harboured E. coli isolates with different AMR profiles, which is of high clinical relevance. The majority of isolates could be classified into phylogenetic groups D (54.3%) and B2 (25.6%), followed by A (11.4%) and B1 (8.7%). Virulotyping showed that the highest number of isolates contained genes iucD (86.8%) and iss (84.9%), whereas papC (16.0%) and astA (12.3%) were present in least number of isolates. PFGE resulted in 58 different profiles from 200 typeable isolates. No correlation was found between specific serotypes, AMR profiles, phylogenetic groups, PFGE types or VAG profiles of E. coli and the occurrence of bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis, contradicting the hypothesis of a specific bacterial pheno- or genotype being involved in the disease.

Septic Arthritis/Osteomyelitis May Lead to Osteochondrosis-Like Lesions in Foals.

Failure of the cartilage canal blood supply leads to ischemic chondronecrosis which causes osteochondrosis, and osteochondral lesions. Osteochondrosis is a disease with a heritable component and usually occurs under aseptic conditions. Because bacteria can bind to growth cartilage and disrupt the blood supply in pigs and chickens, we considered whether this might play a role in development of equine osteochondrosis. The aim of this study was to examine whether bacteria are present in canals in the growth cartilage of foals with septic arthritis/osteomyelitis, and whether this is associated with osteochondrosis. The material consisted of 7 foals aged 9-117 days euthanized because of septic arthritis/osteomyelitis. The 7 cases had 16 lesions in growth cartilage that were evaluated histologically. Bacteria were present in cartilage canals in foals with septic arthritis/osteomyelitis. Portions of necrotic canals adjacent to bacteria frequently contained neutrophils, termed acute septic canals; or granulation tissue with neutrophils, termed chronic septic canals. Acute and chronic septic canals were associated with ischemic chondronecrosis in the articular-epiphyseal cartilage complex (AECC) of 5 cases and in the physis of 2 cases, and ossification was focally delayed in 5 of those 7 cases. Lesions occurred with and without adjacent osteomyelitis. Bacteria were present in cartilage canals and were associated with focal chondronecrosis in both the AECC and the physis. This establishes sepsis as a plausible cause of some osteochondral lesions in horses. It is recommended that horses with sepsis-related osteochondral lesions may be used for breeding without increasing the prevalence of OCD-predisposing genes in the population.

CLINICOPATHOLOGIC FEATURES OF INFECTION WITH NOVEL BRUCELLA ORGANISMS IN CAPTIVE WAXY TREE FROGS ( PHYLLOMEDUSA SAUVAGII) AND COLORADO RIVER TOADS ( INCILIUS ALVARIUS).

Two novel and distinct Brucella strains were recovered from 5 of 10 adult, sex undetermined, captive waxy tree frogs ( Phyllomedusa sauvagii) and two of five adult, sex undetermined, captive Colorado river toads ( Incilius alvarius) held in a zoologic collection with clinical and pathologic findings of bacterial disease. These amphibians originated from three separate private breeding facilities over several years and exhibited disease 9-49 mo following release from quarantine. Common presenting signs were vague but included focal abscessation, weight loss, change in coloration, anorexia, and decreased perching. Two waxy tree frogs and one Colorado river toad recovered with supportive care and antimicrobial treatment based on susceptibility testing. Microgranulomatosis, subcutaneous and renal abscessation, femoral osteomyelitis, and multicentric infection were the most common histologic findings. The organisms were identified antemortem in samples from subcutaneous abscesses, cloaca, and skin and from a variety of organ systems postmortem, and demonstrated a consistent susceptibility pattern. Initial isolates were misidentified as Ochrobactrum anthropi. Polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene identified the two organisms as novel Brucella strains similar to Brucella inopinata-like sp. and other novel organisms within the emerging "BO clade." Brucella strain oaks (isolated from waxy tree frogs) and Brucella strain leathers (isolated from Colorado river toads) differed from each other by 16 of 571 base pairs in a region of chromosome 2, and did not closely match any previous GenBank entries. This report describes the clinicopathologic features of infection by these bacteria in two amphibian species and expands the range of novel Brucella organisms from amphibian reservoirs.

Pathological and microbiological investigations into cases of bacterial chondronecrosis and osteomyelitis in broiler poultry.

Bacterial chondronecrosis and osteomyelitis (BCO) is increasingly recognized as a major cause of lameness in commercial broilers chickens worldwide, but the pathogenesis of the condition is incompletely understood. This was a longitudinal study of 20 commercial broiler farms in Victoria, Australia, to investigate the aetiology and pathology of BCO. Thorough postmortem examination was performed on culled and dead birds (n = 325) from 20 different flocks at either 1 week, 4 weeks or 5 weeks of age and samples were analysed by conventional bacteriology, molecular identification of infectious organisms detected, serology and histopathology. BCO occurs throughout the life of broiler flocks at a very high rate, with lesions detected in 28% (95% CI 23-34%) of the mortalities and culls. The condition occurs with similar prevalence in both the femur and tibiotarsus. BCO is an infectious process that appears to result from bacteraemia and haematological spread of bacterial pathogens, especially Escherichia coli, to the bones, with 65.3% bacterial isolates from histologically confirmed BCO identified as E. coli, 11.5% as Staphylococcus and the remainder composed of mixed infections or a range of other minor isolates. We observed that almost all E. coli isolated from cases of BCO are avian pathogenic E. coli, suggesting that preventative measures should be directed at this organism.

Septic Arthritis, Physitis, and Osteomyelitis in Foals.

Despite differences in etiology and diagnostics, the mainstay of therapy in the foal is similar to the adult: local lavage and/or debridement and local antimicrobial therapy. When musculoskeletal infection is concurrent with neonatal sepsis, the prognosis for survival is fair. When musculoskeletal infection is the primary problem, the prognosis is fair to good for survival of synovial, bony, and physeal infections with appropriate and aggressive local therapy. Recent literature may indicate that prognosis for survival and potential athleticism in foals that are treated expediently with local therapies and are without comorbidities may be more favorable than has been previously indicated.

Cryptococcal Maxillary Osteomyelitis and Osteonecrosis in a 18-Month-Old Dog.

An 18-month-old neutered male labradoodle was treated with surgical debridement for maxillary osteomyelitis and sequestrum formation. Histopathologic findings of the necrotic bone were consistent with Cryptococcus subspecies, confirmed with latex agglutination serum titer testing. The patient responded to a combination of fluconazole and surgical debridement and was titer negative after 8 months of medical therapy. The patient never exhibited signs of systemic illness which is commonly reported with cryptococcosis. Cryptococcus subspecies infection in dogs in the Pacific Northwest is part of an ongoing outbreak in the region, first reported in 2001, and is associated with specific risk factors. This is the first published case of oral cryptococcosis from primary inoculation.

Vertebral osteomyelitis associated with single and mixed bacterial infection in broilers.

Vertebral osteomyelitis (VO) is a worldwide emerging disease that affects broilers. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency and aetiology of VO in broilers in a highly productive broiler region. For this, 608 broilers with locomotory problems were analysed from 18 farms. Clinical signs were recorded, necropsy was performed and samples were collected from vertebral bodies with gross changes for molecular and histopathological analysis and for bacterial isolation. From broilers with locomotory changes, 5.1% (31/608) had VO and, of these, 93.5% were 40 days old or older and 89.7% were males. The birds with VO presented varying degrees of limited mobility and this was related to the level of compression to the spinal cord. Bacterial species of the genus Enterococcus (DNA detected in 53.6%) were the aetiological agents involved in most VO cases. Enterococcus faecalis was detected most frequently (35.7%), but Enterococcus hirae was also present in some lesions (7.1%). Escherichia coli was detected in 35.7% of vertebral lesions and co-infection with E. faecalis was confirmed in 7.1% cases. Staphylococcus aureus was involved in 14.3% of the cases, being 7.1% in co-infection with Enterococcus spp. or E. hirae. Our study has indicated that, in Brazil, VO in broilers may not be caused by a single infectious agent and has a lower frequency than recently reported in other countries. This study suggests that there are geographical differences between Brazil and other countries concerning the frequency and aetiology of VO.