Patterns of ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness and associations with science, technology, engineering, and math engagement and perceived barriers: A latent class analysis of youth of color.

OBJECTIVES: Despite the well-documented scholarship highlighting ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and critical consciousness (CC) as promotive of positive academic outcomes, little research has explored what role these cultural assets may play in shaping science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) engagement and perceptions of barriers to STEM for youth of color. This work explored relations between racially minoritized youths' patterns of ERI and CC in association with STEM engagement and perceptions of STEM career and educational barriers. METHOD: Latent class analysis and analysis of variance were used with a predominately Black and Latinx sample (N = 265, Mage = 15.83, SD = 1.35; 49% female). RESULTS: Four classes emerged. Members of the naïve affirmed advocates class had significantly higher STEM engagement than the disillusioned class. Youth in the affirmed and critical class reported the highest perceptions of STEM-related career barriers, followed by the affirmed advocates class. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the critical link between ERI and CC as promotive factors for academic engagement for racially minoritized youth in STEM and promote awareness of STEM-related barriers that may be useful to prepare and navigate future STEM challenges. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

A preliminary investigation of longitudinal associations between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness among Black and Latinx youth.

OBJECTIVES: In order for parents, educators, and communities to support racially/ethnically minoritized youth to resist and heal from White supremacy, it is important to examine how youths' beliefs about their ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and critical consciousness (CC) around racism inform one another. Despite this need, limited empirical research examines whether these processes are related across adolescence. METHOD: The present two-wave longitudinal study investigates whether ERI content (i.e., centrality, private regard) and CC (i.e., critical social analysis, interpersonal antiracism actions) are associated with one another among Black and Latinx youth N = 233; young women (55.6%); young men (44.4%); M = 14.96 years old, SD = 1.46. RESULTS: Autoregressive cross-lagged panel models suggested that youths' centrality at W1 was positively and significantly associated with a critical social analysis at W2, and critical social analysis at W1 was positively and significantly associated with private regard at W2 for both groups. Involvement in interpersonal antiracism actions at W1 was positively and significantly associated with private regard at W2 for both groups. Group differences existed in the link between centrality at W1 and interpersonal antiracism actions at W2. CONCLUSION: Results indicate that ERI and CC may be viable entry points into stimulating youths' capacity to challenge racism, although there is promise in activating antiracism action to further stimulate ERI development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Developing a Youth Participatory Action Research Program for Latine Youth in an Emerging Community.

In this practice note, we document the development of a youth participatory action research (YPAR) program designed by and for Latine youth residing in a small but rapidly growing Latine community. Our community-academic team partnered to cocreate a YPAR curriculum focused on supporting Latine youth in learning about research and developing their own research projects. Participants in the pilot year worked on Photovoice projects centered on topics they identified, including preventing colorism and machismo and increasing access to mental health services. We reviewed lessons learned from this work, including challenges engaging young people and creating linguistically inclusive spaces.

Showing Up: A Theoretical Model of Anti-Racist Identity and Action for Latinx Youth.

Historical and contemporary political events underscore that Latinx people do not necessarily view race and racism in the United States through a shared lens with other Latinx people and other communities of color. Thus, it is critical to understand how Latinx youth develop attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that challenge white supremacy-or anti-racist identities and behaviors-that actively disrupt racial oppression communities of color face as well as their own communities. In this paper, we review theoretical mechanisms by which Latinx youth may develop anti-racist identities and actions on behalf of their own ethnic/racial communities and other communities oppressed by white supremacy. We conclude by offering suggestions for how institutions may support Latinx youth's anti-racist identities and actions.

Engagement Coping Responses to Adolescents' Negative Racialized Experiences.

This study examined thematic patterns of parents' engaged coping messages in response to their adolescents' negative race-based experiences. Ten focus groups were conducted with 73 Black parents from a Southeastern city (73% female). Using modified grounded theory, narratives that supported adolescent engaged coping were coded for three ethnic-racial socialization messages, the perpetrator, and the setting, followed by inductive (open) coding. The majority of experiences were school-related. Themes were informed by parents' critical engagement, ethnic-racial socialization, and engaged racial coping. Findings revealed that parents advised a repertoire of engaged coping strategies, from actively confronting interpersonal perpetrators (e.g., peers), to critically engaging with institutional perpetrators. Strategies to develop adolescents' critical reflection and anti-racism actions to dismantle racism across contexts are discussed.

Incorporating immigrant optimism into critical consciousness and civic development models: An integrative review and synthesis of civic action among immigrant youth of color in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: Civic action describes participation in political and prosocial activities aimed at benefiting one's communities. A growing literature rooted in critical consciousness (CC) theory suggests that engaging in critical action, which challenges societal inequities, is important for the positive development of youth of color. Although valuable, existing literatures have yet to consider how psychological processes related to the immigrant experience, such as immigrant optimism (IO), may differentially influence the civic participation of immigrant youth of color. IO is a phenomenon in which immigrant groups hold higher aspirations and more positive views of the host society than their nonimmigrant peers, and this often is associated with positive outcomes. This article reviews and integrates relevant research on the civic development of immigrant youth of color, considering both how IO may be a particularly relevant process in shaping immigrant youths' CC development and how civic action may take different forms among these youth. METHOD: We define concepts, integrate previously siloed literatures, and make recommendations for future research. RESULTS: We propose expanding existing frameworks to consider IO and forms of action, along with their intended outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Incorporating IO into studies of CC or civic development can clarify important differences and enhance our understanding of how best to support immigrant youth. Similarly, examining forms of action and their intended outcome may be advantageous in facilitating young immigrants' development as active and engaged members of society. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Relating through Oppression: Longitudinal Relations between Parental Racial Socialization, School Racial Climate, Oppressed Minority Ideology, and Empathy in Black Male Adolescents' Prosocial Development.

This research explored whether Black male adolescents' (N = 453; Mage  = 13.72, SD = 1.33) perceptions of parental racial socialization (i.e., behavioral racial socialization) and school racial climate (i.e., equitable school racial climate) were associated with prosocial outcomes (i.e., prosocial behaviors and positive relations with others) across three waves of adolescence. This study also explored whether youth's beliefs about the extent to which Black individuals and other marginalized communities are united by experiences of oppression (i.e., oppressed minority ideology) and empathy mediated these associations. Structural equation modeling indicated that parental behavioral racial socialization at Wave 1 and positive relations with others at Wave 3 were positively linked through youth's oppressed minority ideology and empathy at Wave 2. Thus, Black male adolescents who relate to other marginalized communities through a shared experience of oppression and feel empathy towards others' lives possess skills that translate their lessons about race and racism into positive relations with others.

Youth anti-racism action: Contributions of youth perceptions of school racial messages and critical consciousness.

The current study examined whether youth perceptions of school racial messages that acknowledged the reality of racism (critical consciousness [CC] messages) or denied racism (color-blind messages) predicted youth anti-racism action through interpersonal and communal/political means. We further tested whether youths' critical reflection of perceived inequality and anger toward social injustice-psychological aspects of CC development-mediated relations between school messages and youth actions. These questions were explored using structural equation modeling with 372 racially/ethnically diverse adolescents (Mage = 17.00; standard deviation = 1.29; female = 51.0%). Results indicated that youth perceptions of CC messages predicted their involvement in both interpersonal and communal/political anti-racism action. Youths' anger toward social injustice mediated links between school racial messages and anti-racism action, albeit in unique ways. These findings underscore the power of schools in prompting youth anti-racism action. Implications of the importance of partnerships between schools and youth community organizing groups to stimulate youth anti-racism action were discussed.

Black Adolescents' Critical Reflection Development: Parents' Racial Socialization and Attributions About Race Achievement Gaps.

This research explored the development of Black adolescents' (N = 454) critical reflection, conceived as individual (i.e., blaming Black people) and structural (i.e., blaming systemic racism) attributions for race achievement gaps. In this longitudinal study, adolescents and their parents reported their individual and structural attributions for race achievement gaps and parents' racial socialization. Adolescents' structural attributions increased from Grade 10 to Grade 12. Average levels of individual attributions did not change. Adolescents' reports of parental racial socialization and parents' structural attributions when youth were in Grade 10 predicted increases in adolescents' structural attributions. Findings are applied to future research and efforts to increase adolescent critical reflection.

Latinx and Black young adults' pathways to civic/political engagement.

OBJECTIVES: Latinx and Black young adults' experiences with the U.S. political system have been contentious. Despite this, they utilize psychological strengths, such as their critical consciousness (CC), to participate in the political process. This research explored relations between CC (e.g., critical reflection of social inequality and voting likelihood) and forms of civic/political engagement (e.g., sociopolitical action and social media engagement) among Latinx and Black young adults. METHOD: Measurement invariance (MI) tests and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used with Latinx (N = 354, Mage = 26.08, SD = 5.03) young adults who were slightly predominately male (55.1%) and Black American young adults (N = 160, Mage = 25.84, SD = 4.98) who were slightly predominately female (52.5%). RESULTS: MI results indicated measures were not invariant (i.e., they were measured differently) across groups. Therefore, the hypothesized model was examined separately for groups. SEM analyses suggested both groups' critical reflection positively predicted voting likelihood and sociopolitical action. For Latinx young adults, voting likelihood mediated the relation between critical reflection and social media engagement. Black young adults' voting likelihood was unrelated to sociopolitical action and social media engagement. Alternative models examined bidirectional relations between CC and civic/political engagement. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest civic/political engagement pathways differ for Latinx and Black young adults. However, fostering critical reflection has the potential to stimulate both groups' intent to vote and sociopolitical action. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The Development of Ethnic-Racial Identity Process and Its Relation to Civic Beliefs among Latinx and Black American Adolescents.

Despite associations between ethnic-racial identity processes (i.e., exploration and resolution) and positive psychosocial outcomes among adolescents, limited empirical research investigates longitudinal associations between these processes and civic beliefs. To address this gap in the literature, this research explored whether changes in ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution predicted civic beliefs among adolescents. Participants included 400 Latinx (n = 121; 47.1% girls) and Black American (n = 279; 52.0% girls) adolescents in the 6th (n = 210), 7th (n = 113) and 8th Grades (n = 74). Neither initial levels nor changes in ethnic-racial identity exploration predicted civic beliefs across four time-points of the study, or across two years of middle school. Adolescents who demonstrated greater increases in ethnic-racial identity resolution across two years of middle school were likely to have greater civic beliefs by the end of the two years, as compared to adolescents who had smaller increases in resolution. These results suggest that adolescents who have an increasingly clear sense of their ethnic-racial selves may have greater access to cognitive and socioemotional resources that promote their development of beliefs on the need to advance the well-being of their communities.

Social identity development and religious discrimination among Muslim American youth.

The present study investigated the development of social identity centrality dimensions (i.e., Muslim, ethnic, and American identity centrality) among Muslim American youth as well as associations between religious discrimination and social identity centrality trajectories. Data were collected once annually from 2015 to 2017 with 220 Muslim American youth (M = 14.20, SD = 0.94) in the Midwest United States (girls = 53.2%; boys = 42.3%; missing = 4.5%). Participants were Arab (62.3%), Somali (15.9%), and African American (8.6%), among other ethnic groups (less than 2%). Latent growth curve models indicated that Muslim and ethnic identity centrality displayed negative trajectories and that American identity centrality increased over time. Surprisingly, religious discrimination was not associated with social identity centrality trajectories. This research suggests that Muslim American youths' minoritized social identities develop similarly, whereas youths' American social identity develops differently than these identities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Sociopolitical development: A history and overview of a black liberatory approach to youth development.

Sociopolitical development (SPD) is the process by which people come to understand structural oppression and develop the capacity to reform and transform society, combat oppression, and achieve liberation. In this article, we honor and recognize the community-based framework building of Dr. Roderick Watts and his colleagues, scholars of African descent who pioneered SPD. First, we describe the history and evolution of SPD as both stage and process models of development rooted in Black liberation psychology. We then highlight several contributions of SPD to psychology research and practice including the relevance of sociocultural factors; the integration of intersectionality, well-being, and healing; and the role of context. Throughout, we share parts of conversations with several pioneering SPD scholars regarding the importance of this framework to both Black psychology and psychology broadly. We conclude with recommendations for how psychologists can integrate SPD into their research and practice, as one way to challenge anti-Black racism and reimagine youth resistance against racism and oppression. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Political identification, political ideology, and critical social analysis of inequality among marginalized youth.

This study applies multiple indicator and multiple causes modeling to examine to what extent critical social analysis of inequality, a dimension of critical consciousness (CC), may be explained by political party identification (i.e., Republican vs. Democrat) or political ideology (i.e., conservative vs. liberal). These issues were examined among 237 public high school students from a large Midwestern city, who generally came from historically marginalized groups. Analyses suggest that political party identification was only marginally associated with critical social analysis of inequality and political ideology had a small positive association with critical social analysis of inequality. Further, political identification and political ideology only explained between 2% and 4% of the variance in critical social analysis of inequality. These results suggest complexity in how youth think about political institutions and inequality, while also providing evidence that a critical social analysis of inequality is largely independent of political identification and ideology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Critical action as a pathway to social mobility among marginalized youth.

Marginalized youth's development occurs in contexts rife with racialized, gendered, and socioeconomic social identity threats and barriers to social mobility. An emergent line of inquiry suggests critical action-a component of critical consciousness, defined as engaging in individual or collective social action to produce social change-may bolster career development for those experiencing marginalization. Yet, the specific mechanisms underlying critical action-career development associations are not well understood. Applying structural equation modeling (SEM) to 4 waves of longitudinal data from the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study (when participants were 17, 19, 21, and 29 years old), the authors explore the role of critical action for African American participants from lower-SES households (n = 261). The obtained model, which links critical action to career expectancies in adolescence and occupational attainment in adulthood, converges with earlier research linking critical consciousness to career development, social mobility pathways, and occupational attainment among marginalized youth. This study adds to previous literature by suggesting that critical action: (a) plays a significant role in fostering career expectancies in adolescence, particularly during high school, among marginalized youth; and (b) may promote the attainment of higher-status occupations in adulthood. Given the role of occupational attainment in social mobility and inclusion, these findings suggest an important mechanism by which social inequities may be narrowed. (PsycINFO Database Record