Up-regulation of GABA(B) receptor signaling by constitutive assembly with the K+ channel tetramerization domain-containing protein 12 (KCTD12).

GABA(B) receptors are the G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) for GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Native GABA(B) receptors comprise principle and auxiliary subunits that regulate receptor properties in distinct ways. The principle subunits GABA(B1a), GABA(B1b), and GABA(B2) form fully functional heteromeric GABA(B(1a,2)) and GABA(B(1b,2)) receptors. Principal subunits regulate forward trafficking of the receptors from the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane and control receptor distribution to axons and dendrites. The auxiliary subunits KCTD8, -12, -12b, and -16 are cytosolic proteins that influence agonist potency and G-protein signaling of GABA(B(1a,2)) and GABA(B(1b,2)) receptors. Here, we used transfected cells to study assembly, surface trafficking, and internalization of GABA(B) receptors in the presence of the KCTD12 subunit. Using bimolecular fluorescence complementation and metabolic labeling, we show that GABA(B) receptors associate with KCTD12 while they reside in the endoplasmic reticulum. Glycosylation experiments support that association with KCTD12 does not influence maturation of the receptor complex. Immunoprecipitation and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer experiments demonstrate that KCTD12 remains associated with the receptor during receptor activity and receptor internalization from the cell surface. We further show that KCTD12 reduces constitutive receptor internalization and thereby increases the magnitude of receptor signaling at the cell surface. Accordingly, knock-out or knockdown of KCTD12 in cultured hippocampal neurons reduces the magnitude of the GABA(B) receptor-mediated K(+) current response. In summary, our experiments support that the up-regulation of functional GABA(B) receptors at the neuronal plasma membrane is an additional physiological role of the auxiliary subunit KCTD12.

Monoallelic de novo AJAP1 loss-of-function variants disrupt trans-synaptic control of neurotransmitter release.

Adherens junction-associated protein 1 (AJAP1) has been implicated in brain diseases; however, a pathogenic mechanism has not been identified. AJAP1 is widely expressed in neurons and binds to γ-aminobutyric acid type B receptors (GBRs), which inhibit neurotransmitter release at most synapses in the brain. Here, we show that AJAP1 is selectively expressed in dendrites and trans-synaptically recruits GBRs to presynaptic sites of neurons expressing AJAP1. We have identified several monoallelic AJAP1 variants in individuals with epilepsy and/or neurodevelopmental disorders. Specifically, we show that the variant p.(W183C) lacks binding to GBRs, resulting in the inability to recruit them. Ultrastructural analysis revealed significantly decreased presynaptic GBR levels in Ajap1-/- and Ajap1W183C/+ mice. Consequently, these mice exhibited reduced GBR-mediated presynaptic inhibition at excitatory and inhibitory synapses, along with impaired synaptic plasticity. Our study reveals that AJAP1 enables the postsynaptic neuron to regulate the level of presynaptic GBR-mediated inhibition, supporting the clinical relevance of loss-of-function AJAP1 variants.

Opposite effects of KCTD subunit domains on GABA(B) receptor-mediated desensitization.

GABA(B) receptors assemble from principle and auxiliary subunits. The principle subunits GABA(B1) and GABA(B2) form functional heteromeric GABA(B(1,2)) receptors that associate with homotetramers of auxiliary KCTD8, -12, -12b, or -16 (named after their K(+) channel tetramerization domain) subunits. These auxiliary subunits constitute receptor subtypes with distinct functional properties. KCTD12 and -12b generate desensitizing receptor responses while KCTD8 and -16 generate largely non-desensitizing receptor responses. The structural elements of the KCTDs underlying these differences in desensitization are unknown. KCTDs are modular proteins comprising a T1 tetramerization domain, which binds to GABA(B2), and a H1 homology domain. KCTD8 and -16 contain an additional C-terminal H2 homology domain that is not sequence-related to the H1 domains. No functions are known for the H1 and H2 domains. Here we addressed which domains and sequence motifs in KCTD proteins regulate desensitization of the receptor response. We found that the H1 domains in KCTD12 and -12b mediate desensitization through a particular sequence motif, T/NFLEQ, which is not present in the H1 domains of KCTD8 and -16. In addition, the H2 domains in KCTD8 and -16 inhibit desensitization when expressed C-terminal to the H1 domains but not when expressed as a separate protein in trans. Intriguingly, the inhibitory effect of the H2 domain is sequence-independent, suggesting that the H2 domain sterically hinders desensitization by the H1 domain. Evolutionary analysis supports that KCTD12 and -12b evolved desensitizing properties by liberating their H1 domains from antagonistic H2 domains and acquisition of the T/NFLEQ motif.

Hierarchy of Notch-Delta interactions promoting T cell lineage commitment and maturation.

Notch1 (N1) receptor signaling is essential and sufficient for T cell development, and recently developed in vitro culture systems point to members of the Delta family as being the physiological N1 ligands. We explored the ability of Delta1 (DL1) and DL4 to induce T cell lineage commitment and/or maturation in vitro and in vivo from bone marrow (BM) precursors conditionally gene targeted for N1 and/or N2. In vitro DL1 can trigger T cell lineage commitment via either N1 or N2. N1- or N2-mediated T cell lineage commitment can also occur in the spleen after short-term BM transplantation. However, N2-DL1-mediated signaling does not allow further T cell maturation beyond the CD25(+) stage due to a lack of T cell receptor beta expression. In contrast to DL1, DL4 induces and supports T cell commitment and maturation in vitro and in vivo exclusively via specific interaction with N1. Moreover, comparative binding studies show preferential interaction of DL4 with N1, whereas binding of DL1 to N1 is weak. Interestingly, preferential N1-DL4 binding reflects reduced dependence of this interaction on Lunatic fringe, a glycosyl transferase that generally enhances the avidity of Notch receptors for Delta ligands. Collectively, our results establish a hierarchy of Notch-Delta interactions in which N1-DL4 exhibits the greatest capacity to induce and support T cell development.

The Sushi domains of GABAB receptors function as axonal targeting signals.

GABA(B) receptors are the G-protein-coupled receptors for GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Two receptor subtypes, GABA(B(1a,2)) and GABA(B(1b,2)), are formed by the assembly of GABA(B1a) and GABA(B1b) subunits with GABA(B2) subunits. The GABA(B1b) subunit is a shorter isoform of the GABA(B1a) subunit lacking two N-terminal protein interaction motifs, the sushi domains. Selectively GABA(B1a) protein traffics into the axons of glutamatergic neurons, whereas both the GABA(B1a) and GABA(B1b) proteins traffic into the dendrites. The mechanism(s) and targeting signal(s) responsible for the selective trafficking of GABA(B1a) protein into axons are unknown. Here, we provide evidence that the sushi domains are axonal targeting signals that redirect GABA(B1a) protein from its default dendritic localization to axons. Specifically, we show that mutations in the sushi domains preventing protein interactions preclude axonal localization of GABA(B1a). When fused to CD8alpha, the sushi domains polarize this uniformly distributed protein to axons. Likewise, when fused to mGluR1a the sushi domains redirect this somatodendritic protein to axons, showing that the sushi domains can override dendritic targeting information in a heterologous protein. Cell surface expression of the sushi domains is not required for axonal localization of GABA(B1a). Altogether, our findings are consistent with the sushi domains functioning as axonal targeting signals by interacting with axonally bound proteins along intracellular sorting pathways. Our data provide a mechanistic explanation for the selective trafficking of GABA(B(1a,2)) receptors into axons while at the same time identifying a well defined axonal delivery module that can be used as an experimental tool.

Complex formation of APP with GABAB receptors links axonal trafficking to amyloidogenic processing.

GABAB receptors (GBRs) are key regulators of synaptic release but little is known about trafficking mechanisms that control their presynaptic abundance. We now show that sequence-related epitopes in APP, AJAP-1 and PIANP bind with nanomolar affinities to the N-terminal sushi-domain of presynaptic GBRs. Of the three interacting proteins, selectively the genetic loss of APP impaired GBR-mediated presynaptic inhibition and axonal GBR expression. Proteomic and functional analyses revealed that APP associates with JIP and calsyntenin proteins that link the APP/GBR complex in cargo vesicles to the axonal trafficking motor. Complex formation with GBRs stabilizes APP at the cell surface and reduces proteolysis of APP to Aß, a component of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease patients. Thus, APP/GBR complex formation links presynaptic GBR trafficking to Aß formation. Our findings support that dysfunctional axonal trafficking and reduced GBR expression in Alzheimer's disease increases Aß formation.

Pharmacological characterization of GABAB receptor subtypes assembled with auxiliary KCTD subunits.

GABAB receptors (GABABRs) are considered promising drug targets for the treatment of mental health disorders. GABABRs are obligate heteromers of principal GABAB1 and GABAB2 subunits. GABABRs can additionally associate with auxiliary KCTD8, 12, 12b and 16 subunits, which also bind the G-protein and differentially regulate G-protein signaling. It is unknown whether the KCTDs allosterically influence pharmacological properties of GABABRs. Here we show that KCTD8 and KCTD16 slightly but significantly increase GABA affinity at recombinant receptors. However, KCTDs clearly do not account for the 10-fold higher GABA affinity of native compared to recombinant GABABRs. The positive allosteric modulator (PAM) GS39783, which binds to GABAB2, increases both potency and efficacy of GABA-mediated G-protein activation ([(35)S]GTPγS binding, BRET between G-protein subunits), irrespective of whether KCTDs are present or not. Of note, the increase in efficacy was significantly larger in the presence of KCTD8, which likely is the consequence of a reduced tonic G-protein activation in the combined presence of KCTD8 and GABABRs. We recorded Kir3 currents to study the effects of GS39783 on receptor-activated G-protein ßγ-signaling. In transfected CHO cells and cultured hippocampal neurons GS39783 increased Kir3 current amplitudes activated by 1 µM of baclofen in the absence and presence of KCTDs. Our data show that auxiliary KCTD subunits exert marginal allosteric influences on principal GABABR subunits. PAMs at principal subunits will therefore not be selective for receptor subtypes owing to KCTD subunits. However, PAMs can differentially modulate the responses of receptor subtypes because the KCTDs differentially regulate G-protein signaling.

Auxiliary GABAB receptor subunits uncouple G protein ßγ subunits from effector channels to induce desensitization.

Activation of K(+) channels by the G protein ßγ subunits is an important signaling mechanism of G-protein-coupled receptors. Typically, receptor-activated K(+) currents desensitize in the sustained presence of agonists to avoid excessive effects on cellular activity. The auxiliary GABAB receptor subunit KCTD12 induces fast and pronounced desensitization of the K(+) current response. Using proteomic and electrophysiological approaches, we now show that KCTD12-induced desensitization results from a dual interaction with the G protein: constitutive binding stabilizes the heterotrimeric G protein at the receptor, whereas dynamic binding to the receptor-activated Gßγ subunits induces desensitization by uncoupling Gßγ from the effector K(+) channel. While receptor-free KCTD12 desensitizes K(+) currents activated by other GPCRs in vitro, native KCTD12 is exclusively associated with GABAB receptors. Accordingly, genetic ablation of KCTD12 specifically alters GABAB responses in the brain. Our results show that GABAB receptors are endowed with fast and reversible desensitization by harnessing KCTD12 that intercepts Gßγ signaling.

Delta-like 4 is the essential, nonredundant ligand for Notch1 during thymic T cell lineage commitment.

Thymic T cell lineage commitment is dependent on Notch1 (N1) receptor-mediated signaling. Although the physiological ligands that interact with N1 expressed on thymic precursors are currently unknown, in vitro culture systems point to Delta-like 1 (DL1) and DL4 as prime candidates. Using DL1- and DL4-lacZ reporter knock-in mice and novel monoclonal antibodies to DL1 and DL4, we show that DL4 is expressed on thymic epithelial cells (TECs), whereas DL1 is not detected. The function of DL4 was further explored in vivo by generating mice in which DL4 could be specifically inactivated in TECs or in hematopoietic progenitors. Although loss of DL4 in hematopoietic progenitors did not perturb thymus development, inactivation of DL4 in TECs led to a complete block in T cell development coupled with the ectopic appearance of immature B cells in the thymus. These immature B cells were phenotypically indistinguishable from those developing in the thymus of conditional N1 mutant mice. Collectively, our results demonstrate that DL4 is the essential and nonredundant N1 ligand responsible for T cell lineage commitment. Moreover, they strongly suggest that N1-expressing thymic progenitors interact with DL4-expressing TECs to suppress B lineage potential and to induce the first steps of intrathymic T cell development.

Functional mapping of GABA(B)-receptor subtypes in the thalamus.

The thalamus plays an important role in attention mechanisms and the generation of brain rhythms. gamma-Aminobutyric acid type B (GABA(B)) receptors are known to regulate the main output neurons of the thalamus, the thalamocortical relay (TCR) cells. However, the contributions of the two predominant GABA(B)-receptor subtypes, GABA(B(1a,2)) and GABA(B(1b,2)), to the control of TCR cell activity are unknown. Here, we used genetic and electrophysiological methods to investigate subtype-specific GABA(B) effects at the inputs to TCR cells. We found that mainly GABA(B(1a,2)) receptors inhibit the release of glutamate from corticothalamic fibers impinging onto TCR cells. In contrast, both GABA(B(1a,2)) and GABA(B(1b,2)) receptors efficiently inhibit the release of GABA from thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) neurons onto TCR neurons. Likewise, both GABA(B(1a,2)) and GABA(B(1b,2)) receptors efficiently activate somatodendritic K(+) currents in TCR cells. In summary, our data show that GABA(B(1b,2)) receptors cannot compensate for the absence of GABA(B(1a,2)) receptors at glutamatergic inputs to TCR cells. This shows that the predominant association of GABA(B(1a,2)) receptors with glutamatergic terminals is a feature that is preserved at several brain synapses. Furthermore, our data indicate that the cognitive deficits observed with mice lacking GABA(B(1a,2)) receptors could to some extent relate to attention deficits caused by disinhibited release of glutamate onto TCR neurons.