[The Journal de chimie médicale (Journal of Medical Chemistry) : a major innovation on French public health during the 19th century ].

JBA Chevallier is first known for his publication in 1850 of his book on falsifications. But he had also a major role for the opening of the pharmacy world to toxicological and Public Health issues, through the founding in 1825, and the management for more than 50 years, of the Journal de chimie médicale, de pharmacie et de toxicologie (Journal of Medical Chemistry, of Pharmacy and of Toxicology). The purpose of the present study has been to look at the evolution of that publication over the years and to compare its content with the reference pharmaceutical journal at that time : the Journal de pharmacie et de chimie (Journal of Pharmacy and Chemistry). One can observe that the editorial lines of both journals will progressively diverge from each other, but Chevallier remained strongly connected with pharmacy, his journal merging finally in 1876 with the Répertoire de pharmacie (Index of Pharmacy).

[The pharmacopoeia of Father Morin in 1864]. / La Pharmacopée de l'abbé Morin en 1864.

The "pharmacopoeia or collection of divine remedies found in the documents of an old rural priest after his death" is a publication of nearly 400 pages including a long list of diseases with their associated treatments, followed by several recipes for the day to day life (such as: how to preserve wine, how to produce Champagne's wine, recipes for filler paste, etc.). A last part, very unique, is dedicated to evil spells, i.e. to diseases that do not have natural explanations and for which Saint Benoit's medal works wonders, according to the author. This pharmacopoeia of 1864 is a typical example of "incoherent collection" mentioned by Tardieu in 1862 concerning clergy and pharmacy. It is, from that point of view, the archetype that pharmacists wanted to see disappearing after the law of germinal year XI (1803), but that persisted until the beginning of the XXth century: the illegal practice of pharmacy by priests and nuns.

[Penicher: an manuscript addendum to his pharmacopoeia of 1695 on the copy of Pharmacy College Library]. / Penicher: un addendum manuscrit à sa pharmacopée de 1695 sur l'exemplaire de la bibliothèque du Collège de Pharmacie.

Penicher's pharmacopeia (1695) was part of the Library of the "College de Pharmacie". The inventory of this Library was done in 1780 and is kept by the Library of the BIU Santé, Paris-Descartes University in Paris that digitized it recently. This copy contains handwritten texts that complete the original edition. The first main addition, at the beginning of the document, is three recipes of drugs, in Latin, one of them being well known at the early 18th century, the vulnerary balm of Leonardo Fioraventi (1517-1588), that is also known as Fioraventi's alcoholate. This product will still be present in the French Codex until 1949. The Penicher' book also includes, at the end, three handwritten pages in French which represent the equipment of apothecaries. These drawings are very close to the ones of Charas' Pharmacopeia. One can think that these additions are from the second part of the 18th century, but before the gift of the pharmacopeia to the College de Pharmacie by Fourcy en 1765. The author is unknown but he is probably one of the predecessor of Fourcy in Pharmacie de l'Ours (Bear's pharmacy). This gift done by Fourcy when joining the Community of Parisians pharmacists did not prevent the fact that Fourcy was sentenced by his colleagues pharmacists, a few years later, for the sales of "Chinese specialties" that someone called Jean-Daniel Smith, a physician installed in Paris, asked him to prepare.

Poison gas and thefirst World War: key role ofpharmacists.

Poison gas has been the subject of attention from the French army (Grand Quartier General). The 22sd of April 1915, General Joffre decided that the General Direction for Health Service was in charge of the protection of troops against what he called "this new mode of terror, disease, and death". Actions are been launched to found ways for the protection means and to obtain for the army at least equivalent weapons. Pharmacists will have a leading role thanks to their knowledge in chemistry. Research laboratories were working in two areas: individual protection and production of aggressive agents. Paul Lebeau, Gabriel Bertrand, Alexandre Degrez, Charles Moureu were among many others very committed to fight and remains at the top and to react quickly to ennemy's attacks. At the end of the war, Paul Lebeau received the Legion d'Honneur medal for his contribution to war. The school of pharmacy was recognized as faculty of pharmacy, by a decree of May 14th, 1920. The knowledge that were obtained during this period will be used for the second World War, but the chemical weapon was not much used, as opposed to more recent usage in Vietnam, Irak and Syria.

[Moyse Charas, a typical master apothecary and physician for his time (1619-1698)].

The life of Moyse Charas has been very stormy, especially after 1680. One can consider three main periods in his carrier : a first one from his birth in Uzès (France), in 1619, to 1680 ; his exile from 1680 to 1689 in various European countries ; and finally, his return to Paris in 1690 until his death in 1698. He decided his return to Paris and confirmed his conversion to Catholicism the 1st of July 1691, being received by Louis XIV and elected as a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1692. Charas dictated his one's will the 12th of January 1698, a few days before his death. All along his very active life, Charas was noteworthy by two major achievements : his interest and works on viper and, as a consequence, on theriac ; and his book that became a reference for all apothecaries and physicians at the time, the Pharmacopée Royale galénique et chimique (the Galenic and Chemical Royal Pharmacopoeia). The present study examines specifically the influence of Charas' pharmacopoeia to the Universal Pharmacopeia of Lémery, and the conceptual visible differences between the two authors. He decided his return to Paris and confirmed his conversion to Catholicism the 1st of July 1691, being received by Louis XIV and elected as a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1692. Charas dictated his one's will the 12th of January 1698, a few days before his death. All along his very active life, Charas was noteworthy by two major achievements : his interest and works on viper and, as a consequence, on theriac ; and his book that became a reference for all apothecaries and physicians at the time, the Pharmacopée Royale galénique et chimique (the Galenic and Chemical Royal Pharmacopoeia). The present study examines specifically the influence of Charas' pharmacopoeia to the Universal Pharmacopeia of Lémery, and the conceptual visible differences between the two authors.

[Pierre Pomet (1658-1699) and his Histoire des drogues (History of drugs) (1694 & 1735)].

Pierre Pomet is a Parisian, but as all great botanists, he liked travelling and bringing back sample of drugs that he was ultimately showing during his course at the Jardin des Plantes (Royal Herbs garden in Paris). Member of druggists and groceries storekeepers' Community, he was not allowed to establish himself as an apothecary in Paris. It is as drug expert that he wrote and published in 1694 his "General History of Drugs, concerning herbs, animals and minerals, book enriched with more than 400 copper-plate engravings designed from nature : with explanations of their various names, their countries of origin, the way to differentiate them from falsified ones, and their properties, where one can see the errors coming from Ancients and modern writers ; the whole being very useful for the public". This book was translated into English in 1712 and German in 1717. It is part of the reference books of the 17th century for pharmacy. In his introduction, Pierre Pomet explains that his goal is to avoid for drugs errors and falsifications that very frequent at that time. The book is then dedicated not only to physicians, apothecaries or students, etc., but also to all that used drugs.

[French influence in the US Dispensatory of 1843].

The US Dispensatory first published in 1833 will see several editions and some of them are accessible on Internet. We have evaluated more specifically the 1843 edition, at a time where several similar reference books were published in France, and especially l'Officine of Dorvault, published for the first time in 1844. One can observe that the American book refers very often to French works coming from pharmacists, chemists and biologists who are, at the time, key references. They are particularly mentioned when talking about alkaloids, but also concerning herbs characterization and history of their discovery, as well as drugs or new active principles effects and toxicity. As opposed to Dorvault who try to help pharmacists by very practical information, the authors of the Dispensatory are doing a review of available scientific evidences, as an add on of the recently published American pharmacopeia in 1831. Among the main french authors that are mentioned, we can see Henry and Guibourt, Pelletier and Caventou, but also Soubeiran, Vauquelin, Robiquet, Orfila and many others. If the most consistent chapters are related to Quinquina, Opium and morphin, the American book, as l'Officine of Dorvault pay attention to have an almost exhaustive table of weight and measures that are still very different from one country to another. Globally speaking, the French authors are mentioned close to 700 times in the 1843 edition of the Dispensatory.

[1916 and the two major pharmaceutical journals at that time : the " Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie", the official journal of the Pharmacist' Society of Paris, and the " Bulletin des sciences pharmacologiques"].

When looking at the content of both of them in the middle of the First World War, indeed one can see a number of articles related to the war, but also several other topics : it is the year of the new law on toxic drugs with the creation of A, B and C classification of drugs. The controversy about pharmaceutical specialties and the growing influence of the pharmaceutical industry still remain an important issue in 1916. It is also an eventful year for the history of pharmacy, three years after the creation of the French Society of History of Pharmacy. One can read also several biographies of pharmacists who died in 1916, not only in relation to war, and of famous pharmacists like Gerhardt (not only for the discovery of aspirin) who was born one century ago. macy, three years after the creation of the French Society of History of Pharmacy. One can read also several biographies of pharmacists who died in 1916, not only in relation to war, and of famous pharmacists like Gerhardt (not only for the discovery of aspirin) who was born one century ago.

[Portable pharmacies during the 19th century, starting from the example of Reichard' pharmacy in his guided for travelers in Europe (1805)]. / Les pharmacies portatives au XIXe siècle, à partir de l'exemple de celle de Reichard, Heinrich August Ottokar (1751-1828), dans son Guide des voyageurs en Europe en 1805.

The portable pharmacy of Reichard, in his 1805 Guide for travelers in Europe is an example among others of a growing determination to answer the needs of the people to have access to drugs even in absence of health care professionals. One can observe the ultimate result by looking at portable pharmacies offered for sale by companies such as Menier and Pharmacie Centrale de France, but also by individual pharmacists. In spite of favorable changes of health care in all countries during the XXe century, portable pharmacy and kits are still widely proposed for sale, on Internet for example, for frequent diseases, including for pets!

[History of oyster as drug from the origin to the 21st century]. / Histoire de l'utilisation de l'huître comme médicament des origines au XXIe siècle.

Since Antiquity, oyster is a subject of interest and medical use, as indicated by Oribiase and Galien. From the 17th century, this unique drug was proposed by physicians for various diseases, and more often for (la rage). One could think that that drug disappeared at the 20th and 21st centuries. But we can observe that it was still recommended by several authors as drug. Still today, companies offer oyster under various forms for allopathic and homeopathic treatments, as well as for food supplement. Research are ongoing to discover active substances within oyster and their potential medical interests.

[The pharmaceutical industry in France: the turning point of 1915]. / L'industrie pharmaceutique en France: le tournant décisif de 1915.

For several convergent reasons, 1915 was a key period for the pharmaceutical industry in France. The overall realization that France was dependent on Germany for chemical and pharmaceutical products came from shortages of key drugs but also from massive use of poison gas for which France was not able to face this unexpected event. France's shortage for chemists properly trained to answer the needs of industry, the weak relationship between industry and faculty, the uncomfortable situation of specialty drugs, the regulations on patents and trademarks were many subjects of controversies which will contribute to the analysis of the source of this French dependence to Germany. It will be at the origin of new orientations after the war for the pharmaceutical industry and the French society. The objective was to be independent for drugs and consequently to resolve the identified issues, as well as to have a dynamic industrial research. The creation and development of several pharmaceutical companies after the war was a more or less direct benefit from the considerations starting in 1915.

[The pharmaceutical company Choay: an history linked to research and commercialization of biological products]. / L'entreprise pharmaceutique Choay: une histoire associée à la recherche et à la commercialisation de produits biologiques.

Eugène Choay, when he created his own company in 1911, had already a large experience in pharmaceutical industry obtained with Maison Frère where he discovered the famous Dentol, well known thank to Poulbot's publicity drawings for this product. But, convinced of the future of biological products and Opotherapy, he decided to invest himself in this area with a totally new process for cold desiccation of organs. The success will be there and several pharmacists from Choay family will take care of the company and bring it to the top of its specialty in Opotherapy. At the beginning of the 1970's, Choay in in full development and has the products, the sites and the human resources for the future. In 1975, 4 therapeutic areas are covered by Choay's products: coagulation, inflammation, dermatology and hepatology. After more than 65 years of independence, Choay group will be finally bought partially and then totally by Sanofi. With the support of Sanofi, Choay created, in 1981, their US subsidiary called Choay Laboratories Inc;, after the NDA approval of sub-cutaneous Calciparine by the FDA. In 1985 Fraxiparine, a low molecular weight heparin discovered by Jean Choay's team, is lauched on the market. All these developments represent an outstanding record a longevity which indicates how perceptive was Eugène Choay and his successors when choosing to invest totally in the therapeutic use of hormones and products acting on coagulation factors.

[Fraud and pharmacist: an old companionship from Antiquity to nowadays]. / La fraude et le pharmacien: un vieux compagnonnage de l'Antiquité à nos jours.

Fraudulent trading often deals with pharmacist, from several viewpoints. Pharmacist had often suffered from it, but he was also sometimes the source of falsification which initiated the need for inspection of pharmacy shops. The scientific knowledge of pharmacists, and particularly his analytical skills, explains their role to detect falsifications for products outside drugs, especially for food and also for drug use in competitive sport. Drug falsification goes back to time immemorial and goes on today very actively with Internet expansion. States and WHO try to fight against this plague with more and more complex tools such as Datamatrix progressively implemented worldwide. Pharmacy and falsifications, two words that will be unfortunately associated during the whole human history.

[Universal elixir of Thomas-Nicolas Larcheret (1819) and his elixirian and normal doctrine]. / L'Elixir universel de Thomas-Nicolas Larcheret (1819), et sa doctrine élixirienne et normale.

Thomas-Nicolas Larcheret, teacher in singing, declamation, guitar or lyre and violin, author of music and books, but also inventor of the universal elixir by his name, is a good example of quack of the 19th century. His book Larcheregium ou Dictionnaires spéciaux de mon élixir, ainsi que toute ma doctrine et de mes adhérens (Larcheregium or special Dictionaries of my elixir, as well as all my doctrine and my adherents), published in 1819, deserves a deep study to show the most frequently used arguments by the ones who emphasize the value of their secret remedy. The opportunities are there to present themselves as victims of medical authorities, experts and authorities as a whole, that do not recognize the value of their product. The only acceptable judge for them is the experience reported by the patients who are able to demonstrate the efficacy of the product since they do buy it (probably at a very high price). From this viewpoint, the book of Larcheret is a good example of turning the authorities down and of diatribe against physicians and pharmacists. It is also the demonstration that, even with the Empire's new regulations against secret remedies and quacks, they will still persist for a large part of the 19th century in France.

[History of electric colloidal metals in therapy : the case of selenium]. / Histoire des métaux colloïdaux électriques en thérapeutique: l'exemple du selenium.

At the beginning of the 1910's period, several scientists and pharmaceutical companies are working actively on colloids, which were discovered in 1845. The pharmaceutical use of"electrical colloids" was the subject of publications and researches for a therapeutic usage, mainly in infectology and oncology. One hun- dred years later, it is under the name ofnanoparticles that the same subject comes to light-and is the source of new works for a potential use for cancer treatment. The example of selenium, which was introduced under a colloidal form in medicine in 1912, is studied here, but other metals could have given the same result: metallic nanoparticles evaluation in pharmacy is not new!

[The influence of the French pharmacy along the centuries throughout the emigration]. / Le rayonnement de la pharmacie française au fil des siècles a travers l'emigration.

The influence of the French Pharmacy abroad has been effective through discoveries, reference books, congresses, universal exhibits, but also thanks to French pharmacists and apothecaries leaving France. For several reasons (religion, poverty, interest for adventure...), these pharmacists took with them the French pharmaceutical culture and products that were in their pharmacopeias or coming from their pharmaceutical industry. Consequently, they have influenced some countries by changing the local legislation, reference books, new products and pharmaceutical products quality. The present publication try to examine those pharmacists that have decided, temporarily or definitively to leave France and to live in other countries.

[The "Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie" and the two world wars]. / Le Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie et les deux guerres mondiales.

The "Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie" was the official publication of the Société de Pharmacie de Paris which became later on the French Academy of pharmacy. It is consequently the organ that presented scientific publications and independent position papers from pharmacists being part of this assembly and coming from universities, drugstores or pharmaceutical industries. We have analyzed the content of this journal during the last two world wars in order to evaluate to what extent the members of the Société de Pharmacie de Paris were part of the war efforts, and encouraged or criticized the on-going events. We can observe that, in both cases, pharmacists used their expert opinions to better react and manage consequences of the conflicts, but also to express their disagreement with enemy's opinions or actions, the Society doing everything possible to maintain its activities. One can observe also that both conflicts were an opportunity to reconsider the organization of pharmacy in France, especially during the Second World War where took place discussions on pharmacy reform (1941 law) and creation of the Pharmacists' Order which will ultimately occur after the war end.

[Fourcroy and pharmaceutical journals]. / Fourcroy et les journaux pharmaceutiques.

Cadet de Gassicourt wrote a brief Eloge of Fourcroy in January 1810 as he died in December of 1809. Fourcroy had a major role concerning the new ideas on the place of pharmacy at the beginning of the 19th century. Fourcroy has had a key influence for the start of several pharmaceutical journals that wanted to emphasize the link between the new chemistry and pharmacy. None of these journals created with him will survive and one has to wait for 1909 to see the creation, without Fourcroy, of a new pharmaceutical journal, the "Journal de Pharmacie" that will become "Journal de Pharmacie et des Sciences accessoires", then "Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie", before taking the name of"Annales Pharmaceutiques Françaises", the present official journal of the French Academy of Pharmacy. In spite of the essential role of Fourcroy at the start of pharmaceutical journals, Cadet did not even mention it in his Eloge of 1810.