Early language dissociation in bilingual minds: magnetoencephalography evidence through a machine learning approach.

Does neural activity reveal how balanced bilinguals choose languages? Despite using diverse neuroimaging techniques, prior studies haven't provided a definitive solution to this problem. Nonetheless, studies involving direct brain stimulation in bilinguals have identified distinct brain regions associated with language production in different languages. In this magnetoencephalography study with 45 proficient Spanish-Basque bilinguals, we investigated language selection during covert picture naming and word reading tasks. Participants were prompted to name line drawings or read words if the color of the stimulus changed to green, in 10% of trials. The task was performed either in Spanish or Basque. Despite similar sensor-level evoked activity for both languages in both tasks, decoding analyses revealed language-specific classification ~100 ms post-stimulus onset. During picture naming, right occipital-temporal sensors predominantly contributed to language decoding, while left occipital-temporal sensors were crucial for decoding during word reading. Cross-task decoding analysis unveiled robust generalization effects from picture naming to word reading. Our methodology involved a fine-grained examination of neural responses using magnetoencephalography, offering insights into the dynamics of language processing in bilinguals. This study refines our understanding of the neural underpinnings of language selection and bridges the gap between non-invasive and invasive experimental evidence in bilingual language production.

Switching off: disruptive TMS reveals distinct contributions of the posterior middle temporal gyrus and angular gyrus to bilingual speech production.

The role of the left temporoparietal cortex in speech production has been extensively studied during native language processing, proving crucial in controlled lexico-semantic retrieval under varying cognitive demands. Yet, its role in bilinguals, fluent in both native and second languages, remains poorly understood. Here, we employed continuous theta burst stimulation to disrupt neural activity in the left posterior middle-temporal gyrus (pMTG) and angular gyrus (AG) while Italian-Friulian bilinguals performed a cued picture-naming task. The task involved between-language (naming objects in Italian or Friulian) and within-language blocks (naming objects ["knife"] or associated actions ["cut"] in a single language) in which participants could either maintain (non-switch) or change (switch) instructions based on cues. During within-language blocks, cTBS over the pMTG entailed faster naming for high-demanding switch trials, while cTBS to the AG elicited slower latencies in low-demanding non-switch trials. No cTBS effects were observed in the between-language block. Our findings suggest a causal involvement of the left pMTG and AG in lexico-semantic processing across languages, with distinct contributions to controlled vs. "automatic" retrieval, respectively. However, they do not support the existence of shared control mechanisms within and between language(s) production. Altogether, these results inform neurobiological models of semantic control in bilinguals.

Cross-modal and cross-language activation in bilinguals reveals lexical competition even when words or signs are unheard or unseen.

We exploit the phenomenon of cross-modal, cross-language activation to examine the dynamics of language processing. Previous within-language work showed that seeing a sign coactivates phonologically related signs, just as hearing a spoken word coactivates phonologically related words. In this study, we conducted a series of eye-tracking experiments using the visual world paradigm to investigate the time course of cross-language coactivation in hearing bimodal bilinguals (Spanish-Spanish Sign Language) and unimodal bilinguals (Spanish/Basque). The aim was to gauge whether (and how) seeing a sign could coactivate words and, conversely, how hearing a word could coactivate signs and how such cross-language coactivation patterns differ from within-language coactivation. The results revealed cross-language, cross-modal activation in both directions. Furthermore, comparison with previous findings of within-language lexical coactivation for spoken and signed language showed how the impact of temporal structure changes in different modalities. Spoken word activation follows the temporal structure of that word only when the word itself is heard; for signs, the temporal structure of the sign does not govern the time course of lexical access (location coactivation precedes handshape coactivation)-even when the sign is seen. We provide evidence that, instead, this pattern of activation is motivated by how common in the lexicon the sublexical units of the signs are. These results reveal the interaction between the perceptual properties of the explicit signal and structural linguistic properties. Examining languages across modalities illustrates how this interaction impacts language processing.

Sniffing out meaning: Chemosensory and semantic neural network changes in sommeliers.

Wine tasting is a very complex process that integrates a combination of sensation, language, and memory. Taste and smell provide perceptual information that, together with the semantic narrative that converts flavor into words, seem to be processed differently between sommeliers and naïve wine consumers. We investigate whether sommeliers' wine experience shapes only chemosensory processing, as has been previously demonstrated, or if it also modulates the way in which the taste and olfactory circuits interact with the semantic network. Combining diffusion-weighted images and fMRI (activation and connectivity) we investigated whether brain response to tasting wine differs between sommeliers and nonexperts (1) in the sensory neural circuits representing flavor and/or (2) in the neural circuits for language and memory. We demonstrate that training in wine tasting shapes the microstructure of the left and right superior longitudinal fasciculus. Using mediation analysis, we showed that the experience modulates the relationship between fractional anisotropy and behavior: the higher the fractional anisotropy the higher the capacity to recognize wine complexity. In addition, we found functional differences between sommeliers and naïve consumers affecting the flavor sensory circuit, but also regions involved in semantic operations. The former reflects a capacity for differential sensory processing, while the latter reflects sommeliers' ability to attend to relevant sensory inputs and translate them into complex verbal descriptions. The enhanced synchronization between these apparently independent circuits suggests that sommeliers integrated these descriptions with previous semantic knowledge to optimize their capacity to distinguish between subtle differences in the qualitative character of the wine.

Verbal production dynamics and plasticity: functional contributions of language and executive control systems.

Bilingual language production requires both language knowledge and language control in order to communicate in a target language. Learning or improving a language in adulthood is an increasingly common undertaking, and this has complex effects on the cognitive and neural processes underlying language production. The current functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment investigated the functional plasticity of verbal production in adult language learners, and examined the dynamics of word retrieval in order to dissociate the contributions of language knowledge and executive control. Thirty four adults who were either intermediate or advanced language learners, underwent MRI scanning while performing verbal fluency tasks in their native and new languages. A multipronged analytical approach revealed (i) time-varying contributions of language knowledge and executive control to verbal fluency performance, (ii) learning-related changes in the functional correlates of verbal fluency in both the native and new languages, (iii) no effect of learning on lateralization, and (iv) greater functional coupling between language and language control regions with greater second language experience. Collectively, our results point to significant functional plasticity in adult language learners that impacts the neural correlates of production in both the native and new languages, and provide new insight into the widely used verbal fluency task.

Theta-gamma phase-amplitude coupling in auditory cortex is modulated by language proficiency.

The coordination between the theta phase (3-7 Hz) and gamma power (25-35 Hz) oscillations (namely theta-gamma phase-amplitude coupling, PAC) in the auditory cortex has been proposed as an essential neural mechanism involved in speech processing. However, it has not been established how this mechanism is related to the efficiency with which a listener processes speech. Speech processing in a non-native language offers a useful opportunity to evaluate if theta-gamma PAC is modulated by the challenges imposed by the reception of speech input in a non-native language. The present study investigates how auditory theta-gamma PAC (recorded with magnetoencephalography) is modulated in both native and non-native speech reception. Participants were Spanish native (L1) speakers studying Basque (L2) at three different levels: beginner (Grade 1), intermediate (Grade 2), and advanced (Grade 3). We found that during L2 speech processing (i) theta-gamma PAC was more highly coordinated for intelligible compared to unintelligible speech; (ii) this coupling was modulated by proficiency in Basque being lower for beginners, higher for intermediate, and highest for advanced speakers (no difference observed in Spanish); (iii) gamma power did not differ between languages and groups. These findings highlight how the coordinated theta-gamma oscillatory activity is tightly related to speech comprehension: the stronger this coordination is, the more the comprehension system will proficiently parse the incoming speech input.

A novel cognitive neurosurgery approach for supramaximal resection of non-dominant precuneal gliomas: a case report.

Despite mounting evidence pointing to the contrary, classical neurosurgery presumes many cerebral regions are non-eloquent, and therefore, their excision is possible and safe. This is the case of the precuneus and posterior cingulate, two interacting hubs engaged during various cognitive functions, including reflective self-awareness; visuospatial and sensorimotor processing; and processing social cues. This inseparable duo ensures the cortico-subcortical connectivity that underlies these processes. An adult presenting a right precuneal low-grade glioma invading the posterior cingulum underwent awake craniotomy with direct electrical stimulation (DES). A supramaximal resection was achieved after locating the superior longitudinal fasciculus II. During surgery, we found sites of positive stimulation for line bisection and mentalizing tests that enabled the identification of surgical corridors and boundaries for lesion resection. When post-processing the intraoperative recordings, we further identified areas that positively responded to DES during the trail-making and mentalizing tests. In addition, a clear worsening of the patient's self-assessment ability was observed throughout the surgery. An awake cognitive neurosurgery approach allowed supramaximal resection by reaching the cortico-subcortical functional limits. The mapping of complex functions such as social cognition and self-awareness is key to preserving patients' postoperative cognitive health by maximizing the ability to resect the lesion and surrounding areas.

Reading-related brain changes in audiovisual processing: cross-sectional and longitudinal MEG evidence.

The ability to establish associations between visual objects and speech sounds is essential for human reading. Understanding the neural adjustments required for acquisition of these arbitrary audiovisual associations can shed light on fundamental reading mechanisms and help reveal how literacy builds on pre-existing brain circuits. To address these questions, the present longitudinal and cross-sectional MEG studies characterize the temporal and spatial neural correlates of audiovisual syllable congruency in children (4-9 years old, 22 males and 20 females) learning to read. Both studies showed that during the first years of reading instruction children gradually set up audiovisual correspondences between letters and speech sounds, which can be detected within the first 400 ms of a bimodal presentation and recruit the superior portions of the left temporal cortex. These findings suggest that children progressively change the way they treat audiovisual syllables as a function of their reading experience. This reading-specific brain plasticity implies (partial) recruitment of pre-existing brain circuits for audiovisual analysis.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTLinking visual and auditory linguistic representations is the basis for the development of efficient reading, while dysfunctional audiovisual letter processing predicts future reading disorders. Our developmental MEG project included a longitudinal and a cross-sectional study; both studies showed that children's audiovisual brain circuits progressively change as a function of reading experience. They also revealed an exceptional degree of neuroplasticity in audiovisual neural networks, showing that as children develop literacy, the brain progressively adapts so as to better detect new correspondences between letters and speech sounds.

Language Proficiency Entails Tuning Cortical Activity to Second Language Speech.

Cortical tracking of linguistic structures in speech, such as phrases (<3 Hz, delta band) and syllables (3-8 Hz, theta band), is known to be crucial for speech comprehension. However, it has not been established whether this effect is related to language proficiency. Here, we investigate how auditory cortical activity in second language (L2) learners tracked L2 speech. Using magnetoencephalography, we recorded brain activity from participants listening to Spanish and Basque. Participants were Spanish native (L1) language speakers studying Basque (L2) at the same language center at three different levels: beginner (Grade 1), intermediate (Grade 2), and advanced (Grade 3). We found that 1) both delta and theta tracking to L2 speech in the auditory cortex were related to L2 learning proficiency and that 2) top-down modulations of activity in the left auditory regions during L2 speech listening-by the left inferior frontal and motor regions in delta band and by the left middle temporal regions in theta band-were also related to L2 proficiency. Altogether, these results indicate that the ability to learn an L2 is related to successful cortical tracking of L2 speech and its modulation by neuronal oscillations in higher-order cortical regions.

Input quality and speech perception development in bilingual infants' first year of life.

Individual differences in infants' native phonological development have been linked to the quantity and quality of infant-directed speech (IDS). The effects of parental and infant bilingualism on this relation in 131 five- and nine-month-old monolingual and bilingual Spanish and Basque infants (72 male; 59 female; from white middle-class background) were investigated. Bilingualism did not affect the developmental trajectory of infants' native and non-native speech perception and the quality of maternal speech. In both language groups, vowel exaggeration in IDS was significantly related to speech perception skills for 9-month-olds (r = -.30), but not for 5-month-olds. This demonstrates that bilingual and monolingual caregivers provide their infants with speech input that assists their task of learning the phonological inventory of one or two languages.

Converging Evidence for Differential Specialization and Plasticity of Language Systems.

Functional specialization and plasticity are fundamental organizing principles of the brain. Since the mid-1800s, certain cognitive functions have been known to be lateralized, but the provenance and flexibility of hemispheric specialization remain open questions. Language is a uniquely human phenomenon that requires a delicate balance between neural specialization and plasticity, and language learning offers the perfect window to study these principles in the human brain. In the current study, we conducted two separate functional MRI experiments with language learners (male and female), one cross-sectional and one longitudinal, involving distinct populations and languages, and examined hemispheric lateralization and learning-dependent plasticity of the following three language systems: reading, speech comprehension, and verbal production. A multipronged analytic approach revealed a highly consistent pattern of results across the two experiments, showing (1) that in both native and non-native languages, while language production was left lateralized, lateralization for language comprehension was highly variable across individuals; and (2) that with increasing non-native language proficiency, reading and speech comprehension displayed substantial changes in hemispheric dominance, with languages tending to lateralize to opposite hemispheres, while production showed negligible change and remained left lateralized. These convergent results shed light on the long-standing debate of neural organization of language by establishing robust principles of lateralization and plasticity of the main language systems. Findings further suggest involvement of the sensorimotor systems in language lateralization and its plasticity.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The human brain exhibits a remarkable ability to support a vast variety of languages that may be acquired at different points in the life span. Language is a complex construct involving linguistic as well as visual, auditory, and motor processes. Using functional MRI, we examined hemispheric specialization and learning-dependent plasticity of three language systems-reading, speech comprehension, and verbal production-in cross-sectional and longitudinal experiments in language learners. A multipronged analytic approach revealed converging evidence for striking differences in hemispheric specialization and plasticity among the language systems. The results have major theoretical and practical implications for our understanding of fundamental principles of neural organization of language, language testing and recovery in patients, and language learning in healthy populations.

Oscillatory and structural signatures of language plasticity in brain tumor patients: A longitudinal study.

Recent evidence suggests that damage to the language network triggers its functional reorganization. Yet, the spectro-temporal fingerprints of this plastic rearrangement and its relation to anatomical changes is less well understood. Here, we combined magnetoencephalographic recordings with a proxy measure of white matter to investigate oscillatory activity supporting language plasticity and its relation to structural reshaping. First, cortical dynamics were acquired in a group of healthy controls during object and action naming. Results showed segregated beta (13-28 Hz) power decreases in left ventral and dorsal pathways, in a time-window associated to lexico-semantic processing (~250-500 ms). Six patients with left tumors invading either ventral or dorsal regions performed the same naming task before and 3 months after surgery for tumor resection. When longitudinally comparing patients' responses we found beta compensation mimicking the category-based segregation showed by controls, with ventral and dorsal damage leading to selective compensation for object and action naming, respectively. At the structural level, all patients showed preoperative changes in white matter tracts possibly linked to plasticity triggered by tumor growth. Furthermore, in some patients, structural changes were also evident after surgery and showed associations with longitudinal changes in beta power lateralization toward the contralesional hemisphere. Overall, our findings support the existence of anatomo-functional dependencies in language reorganization and highlight the potential role of oscillatory markers in tracking longitudinal plasticity in brain tumor patients. By doing so, they provide valuable information for mapping preoperative and postoperative neural reshaping and plan surgical strategies to preserve language function and patient's quality of life.

The effects of bilingualism on attentional processes in the first year of life.

Bilingualism is a powerful experiential factor, and its effects have been proposed to extend beyond the linguistic domain by boosting the development of executive functioning skills. Crucially, recent findings suggest that this effect can be detected in bilingual infants before their first birthday indicating that it emerges as a result of early bilingual exposure and the experience of negotiating two linguistic systems in infants' environment. However, these conclusions are based on only two research studies from the last decade (Comishen, Bialystok, & Adler, 2019; Kovács & Mehler, 2009), so to date, there is a lack of evidence regarding their replicability and generalizability. In addition, previous research does not shed light on the precise aspects of bilingual experience and the extent of bilingual exposure underlying the emergence of this early bilingual advantage. The present study addressed these two questions by assessing attentional control abilities in 7-month-old bilingual infants in comparison to same-age monolinguals and in relation to their individual bilingual exposure patterns. Findings did not reveal significant differences between monolingual and bilingual infants in the measure of attentional control and no relation between individual performance and degree of bilingual exposure. Bilinguals showed different patterns of allocating attention to the visual rewards in this task compared to monolinguals. Thus, this study indicates that bilingualism modulates attentional processes early on, possibly as a result of bilinguals' experience of encoding dual-language information from a complex linguistic input, but it does not lead to significant advantages in attentional control in the first year of life.

Converging evidence for functional and structural segregation within the left ventral occipitotemporal cortex in reading.

The ventral occipitotemporal cortex (vOTC) is crucial for recognizing visual patterns, and previous evidence suggests that there may be different subregions within the vOTC involved in the rapid identification of word forms. Here, we characterize vOTC reading circuitry using a multimodal approach combining functional, structural, and quantitative MRI and behavioral data. Two main word-responsive vOTC areas emerged: a posterior area involved in visual feature extraction, structurally connected to the intraparietal sulcus via the vertical occipital fasciculus; and an anterior area involved in integrating information with other regions of the language network, structurally connected to the angular gyrus via the posterior arcuate fasciculus. Furthermore, functional activation in these vOTC regions predicted reading behavior outside of the scanner. Differences in the microarchitectonic properties of gray-matter cells in these segregated areas were also observed, in line with earlier cytoarchitectonic evidence. These findings advance our understanding of the vOTC circuitry by linking functional responses to anatomical structure, revealing the pathways of distinct reading-related processes.

MULTIMAP: Multilingual picture naming test for mapping eloquent areas during awake surgeries.

Picture naming tasks are currently the gold standard for identifying and preserving language-related areas during awake brain surgery. With multilingual populations increasing worldwide, patients frequently need to be tested in more than one language. There is still no reliable testing instrument, as the available batteries have been developed for specific languages. Heterogeneity in the selection criteria for stimuli leads to differences, for example, in the size, color, image quality, and even names associated with pictures, making direct cross-linguistic comparisons difficult. Here we present MULTIMAP, a new multilingual picture naming test for mapping eloquent areas during awake brain surgery. Recognizing that the distinction between nouns and verbs is necessary for detailed and precise language mapping, MULTIMAP consists of a database of 218 standardized color pictures representing both objects and actions. These images have been tested for name agreement with speakers of Spanish, Basque, Catalan, Italian, French, English, German, Mandarin Chinese, and Arabic, and have been controlled for relevant linguistic features in cross-language combinations. The MULTIMAP test for objects and verbs represents an alternative to the Oral Denomination 80 (DO 80) monolingual pictorial set currently used in language mapping, providing an open-source, standardized set of up-to-date pictures, where relevant linguistic variables across several languages have been taken into account in picture creation and selection.

Neocortical activity tracks the hierarchical linguistic structures of self-produced speech during reading aloud.

How the human brain uses self-generated auditory information during speech production is rather unsettled. Current theories of language production consider a feedback monitoring system that monitors the auditory consequences of speech output and an internal monitoring system, which makes predictions about the auditory consequences of speech before its production. To gain novel insights into underlying neural processes, we investigated the coupling between neuromagnetic activity and the temporal envelope of the heard speech sounds (i.e., cortical tracking of speech) in a group of adults who 1) read a text aloud, 2) listened to a recording of their own speech (i.e., playback), and 3) listened to another speech recording. Reading aloud was here used as a particular form of speech production that shares various processes with natural speech. During reading aloud, the reader's brain tracked the slow temporal fluctuations of the speech output. Specifically, auditory cortices tracked phrases (<1 â€‹Hz) but to a lesser extent than during the two speech listening conditions. Also, the tracking of words (2-4 â€‹Hz) and syllables (4-8 â€‹Hz) occurred at parietal opercula during reading aloud and at auditory cortices during listening. Directionality analyses were then used to get insights into the monitoring systems involved in the processing of self-generated auditory information. Analyses revealed that the cortical tracking of speech at <1 â€‹Hz, 2-4 â€‹Hz and 4-8 â€‹Hz is dominated by speech-to-brain directional coupling during both reading aloud and listening, i.e., the cortical tracking of speech during reading aloud mainly entails auditory feedback processing. Nevertheless, brain-to-speech directional coupling at 4-8 â€‹Hz was enhanced during reading aloud compared with listening, likely reflecting the establishment of predictions about the auditory consequences of speech before production. These data bring novel insights into how auditory verbal information is tracked by the human brain during perception and self-generation of connected speech.

Functional connectivity reveals dissociable ventrolateral prefrontal mechanisms for the control of multilingual word retrieval.

This functional magnetic resonance imaging study established that different portions of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) support reactive and proactive language control processes during multilingual word retrieval. The study also examined whether proactive language control consists in the suppression of the nontarget lexicon. Healthy multilingual volunteers participated in a task that required them to name pictures alternately in their dominant and less-dominant languages. Two crucial variables were manipulated: the cue-target interval (CTI) to either engage (long CTI) or prevent (short CTI) proactive control processes, and the cognate status of the to-be-named pictures (noncognates vs. cognates) to capture selective pre-activation of the target language. The results of the functional connectivity analysis showed a clear segregation between functional networks related to mid-vlPFC and anterior vlPFC during multilingual language production. Furthermore, the results revealed that multilinguals engage in proactive control to prepare the target language. This proactive modulation, enacted by anterior vlPFC, is achieved by boosting the activation of lexical representations in the target language. Finally, control processes supported by both mid-vlPFC and the left inferior parietal lobe, were similarly engaged by reactive and proactive control, possibly exerted on phonological representations to reduce cross-language interference.

Matrices of the frequency and similarity of Arabic letters and allographs.

Indicators of letter frequency and similarity have long been available for Indo-European languages. They have not only been pivotal in controlling the design of experimental psycholinguistic studies seeking to determine the factors that underlie reading ability and literacy acquisition, but have also been useful for studies examining the more general aspects of human cognition. Despite their importance, however, such indicators are still not available for Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), a language that, by virtue of its orthographic system, presents an invaluable environment for the experimental investigation of visual word processing. This paper presents for the first time the frequencies of Arabic letters and their allographs based on a 40-million-word corpus, along with their similarity/confusability indicators in three domains: (1) the visual domain, based on human ratings; (2) the auditory domain, based on an analysis of the phonetic features of letter sounds; and (3) the motoric domain, based on an analysis of the stroke features used to write letters and their allographs. Taken together, the frequency and similarity of Arabic letters and their allographs in the visual and motoric domains, as well as the similarities among the letter sounds, will be useful for researchers interested in the processes underpinning orthographic processing, visual word recognition, reading, and literacy acquisition.

How do Spanish speakers read words? Insights from a crowdsourced lexical decision megastudy.

Vocabulary size seems to be affected by multiple factors, including those that belong to the properties of the words themselves and those that relate to the characteristics of the individuals assessing the words. In this study, we present results from a crowdsourced lexical decision megastudy in which more than 150,000 native speakers from around 20 Spanish-speaking countries performed a lexical decision task to 70 target word items selected from a list of about 45,000 Spanish words. We examined how demographic characteristics such as age, education level, and multilingualism affected participants' vocabulary size. Also, we explored how common factors related to words like frequency, length, and orthographic neighbourhood influenced the knowledge of a particular item. Results indicated important contributions of age to overall vocabulary size, with vocabulary size increasing in a logarithmic fashion with this factor. Furthermore, a contrast between monolingual and bilingual communities within Spain revealed no significant vocabulary size differences between the communities. Additionally, we replicated the standard effects of the words' properties and their interactions, accurately accounting for the estimated knowledge of a particular word. These results highlight the value of crowdsourced approaches to uncover effects that are traditionally masked by small-sampled in-lab factorial experimental designs.

Decoding the meaning of unconsciously processed words using fMRI-based MVPA.

Does the human brain elicit patterns of activity associated with the meaning of words in the absence of conscious awareness? Do such non-conscious semantic representations generalize across languages? This study aimed to address these questions using fMRI-based multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) in a masked word paradigm. Animal and non-animal words were visually presented in two different languages (i.e. Spanish and Basque). Words were presented very briefly and were masked. On each trial, participants identified the semantic category and provided a visibility rating of the word. A support vector machine (SVM) was used to decode word category from multivoxel patterns of BOLD responses in seven canonical semantic regions of a left-lateralized network that were prespecified based on a previous meta-analysis. We show that the semantic category of non-conscious words (i.e. associated with null visual experience and chance-level discrimination performance) can be significantly decoded from BOLD response patterns. For Spanish, such discriminative patterns of BOLD responses were consistently found in inferior parietal lobe, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal gyrus and posterior cingulate gyrus. While for Basque, these were found in ventromedial temporal lobe and posterior cingulate gyrus. All of the areas identified have previously been associated with semantic processing in studies involving animals-tools and animals-artifacts contrasts. In conscious trials, such patterns were found to be distributed over all seven regions of the semantic network in both Spanish and Basque. However, we found no evidence of across-language generalization. These results demonstrate that even in the absence of conscious awareness and lack of behavioural sensitivity to the words, putative semantic brain areas carry information related to the meanings of the words. The generalization of semantic representations across languages, however, may require deeper conscious semantic access.