Drug use patterns and trends in rural communities.

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE: This study examines the prevalence of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use among adolescents and adults in 3 types of counties: "rural" (nonmetropolitan counties with urban population less than 20,000), "urbanized nonmetropolitan" (nonmetropolitan counties with urban population 20,000 or higher), and "metropolitan" (counties in metropolitan areas). METHODS: Data from the 2002-2004 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health are used to compare residents of the 3 county types. Descriptive findings and a multivariate model of marijuana use among adolescents are presented by county type. FINDINGS: Past year illicit drug use is generally similar among adolescents in rural, urbanized nonmetropolitan, and metropolitan counties, except that Ecstasy use is higher among youth in metropolitan and urbanized nonmetropolitan counties than rural counties, while rural youth have a higher prevalence of stimulant and methamphetamine use than metropolitan youth. Gender, race/ethnicity, and family income functioned differentially across the 3 county types as predictors of youth marijuana use during the past year. Rural adults had generally lower rates of illicit drug use than metropolitan adults, but adults in rural and urbanized nonmetropolitan areas had higher rates of methamphetamine use than those in metropolitan areas. Rural youth had a higher prevalence of past month use of tobacco and alcohol. Rural adults had higher rates of tobacco use but lower rates of alcohol use. CONCLUSIONS: This study dispels the notion that substance abuse is only an urban problem and provides information useful in developing and implementing interventions that consider the unique characteristics of rural residents.

Projecting drug use among aging baby boomers in 2020.

PURPOSE: Greater rates of lifetime drug use among the baby-boom generation, combined with the size of that generation, suggest that the number of elderly persons using drugs will increase in the next two decades. Given the potential public health demands implied by increasing numbers of elderly drug users, the goal is to project the numbers of current drug users aged 50 years and older in 2020. METHODS: Using the modeling and projection methods of Gfroerer et al (2003) applied to data from the 1999 to 2001 National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse, projections were developed for the use of marijuana, nonmedical use of any prescription-type psychotherapeutic drug, and any illicit drug use. RESULTS: From 1999 to 2001 to 2020, past-year marijuana use in persons 50 years and older is forecast to increase from 1.0% to 2.9%. The number of users is expected to increase from 719,000 to almost 3.3 million, reflecting the combined effects of the increase in rate of use and a projected 51.9% increase in the civilian noninstitutionalized population in this age group. Use of any illicit drug will increase from 2.2% (1.6 million) to 3.1% (3.5 million), and nonmedical use of psychotherapeutic drugs will increase from 1.2% (911,000) to 2.4% (almost 2.7 million). CONCLUSIONS: These projections call attention to changes to be considered in planning and to the need for improved knowledge of the biomedical and psychosocial effects of nonmedical drug use on aging and elderly individuals.

Developments in the epidemiology of drug use and drug use disorders.

The past 30 years of research on the epidemiology of drug use, drug use disorders, and related conditions, such as HIV, has provided major insight into these conditions. Drug use peaked in the late 1970s, decreased across the 1980s, increased in the 1990s, and has remained stable during the past few years. Within this broad pattern, specific epidemics of crack cocaine, amphetamines, club drugs (such as Ecstasy), heroin, and prescription opioids and associated epidemics of HIV and other infectious diseases have been identified and tracked. Besides major accomplishments in surveillance, the epidemiology of drug use and drug use disorders has traditionally focused on identifying risk factors at the individual (genetic factors, high-risk behaviors), family (child abuse), neighborhood (high availability of drugs), and societal (policies and laws) levels as domains of influence, not as components of interrelated processes. Research includes careful cross-sectional and longitudinal observational studies as well as clinical epidemiological experiments in which prevention interventions test specific etiological theories. Building on this background, the next challenges for the epidemiology of drug use and drug use disorders will be to link individual vulnerabilities with specific environmental factors by using multilevel methodological approaches. For example, what are the environmental factors that interact with individual vulnerabilities to produce drug addictions and drug consequences such as HIV? Research in genetic epidemiology has demonstrated the potential for studies of interactions of genetic and environmental factors. The field needs to focus on linking science with epidemiology to make progress in understanding these complex health conditions.

Prevalence, correlates, and comorbidity of DSM-IV antisocial personality syndromes and alcohol and specific drug use disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to provide nationally representative data on the prevalence, sociodemographic correlates, and comorbidity of antisocial syndromes across alcohol and 8 specific drug use disorders, including sedative, tranquilizer, opiate, stimulant, hallucinogen, cannabis, cocaine, and inhalant/solvent abuse and dependence. METHOD: This study is based on a nationally representative sample of adults. Lifetime prevalences of antisocial syndromes were estimated and logistic regression analyses were used to examine associations between antisocial syndromes and sociodemographic characteristics and substance use disorders. Diagnoses were made according to the criteria of the DSM-IV using the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-DSM-IV Version. RESULTS: The lifetime prevalences of antisocial personality disorder (APD), conduct disorder, and adult antisocial behavior were 3.6%, 1.1%, and 12.3%, respectively. Prevalences of alcohol use disorders and drug use disorders were 30.3% and 10.3%, respectively. In general, men and individuals who were younger, widowed/separated/divorced, of lower socioeconomic status, and living in urban areas or in the West were more likely to have antisocial syndromes. Native Americans were more likely and Asians and Hispanics were less likely to have APD and adult antisocial behavior. Virtually all of the associations between APD and adult antisocial behavior and specific substance use disorders were positive and statistically significant (p < .05). Significant associations between conduct disorder and substance use disorders were concentrated among women. CONCLUSION: Comorbidity of specific substance disorders with antisocial syndromes is very common in the U.S. population. Further work in many directions is indicated by the results of this study, including the factors that give rise to the associations and the treatment and prevention implications of these conditions when comorbid.

Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States: 1991-1992 and 2001-2002.

CONTEXT: Among illicit substance use disorders, marijuana use disorders are the most prevalent in the population. Yet, information about the prevalence of current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) marijuana use disorders and how prevalence has changed is lacking. OBJECTIVE: To examine changes in the prevalence of marijuana use, abuse, and dependence in the United States between 1991-1992 and 2001-2002. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Face-to-face interviews were conducted in 2 large national surveys conducted 10 years apart: the 1991-1992 National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey ([NLAES] n = 42,862) and the 2001-2002 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions ([NESARC] n = 43,093). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Rates of past year marijuana use, abuse, and dependence. RESULTS: Among the adult US population, the prevalence of marijuana use remained stable at about 4.0% over the past decade. In contrast, the prevalence of DSM-IV marijuana abuse or dependence significantly (P =.01) increased between 1991-1992 (1.2%) and 2001-2002 (1.5%), with the greatest increases observed among young black men and women (P<.001) and young Hispanic men (P =.006). Further, marijuana use disorders among marijuana users significantly increased (P =.002) in the absence of increased frequency and quantity of marijuana use, suggesting that the concomitant increase in potency of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta9-THC) may have contributed to the rising rates. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the stability in the overall prevalence of marijuana use, more adults in the United States had a marijuana use disorder in 2001-2002 than in 1991-1992. Increases in the prevalence of marijuana use disorders were most notable among young black men and women and young Hispanic men. Although rates of marijuana abuse and dependence did not increase among young white men and women, their rates have remained high. The results of this study underscore the need to develop and implement new prevention and intervention programs targeted at youth, particularly minority youth.

Serious psychological distress and mental health service use among community-dwelling older U.S. adults.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the prevalence and predictors of past-year serious psychological distress and receipt of mental health services among community-dwelling older adults in the United States. METHODS: The sample included 9,957 adults aged 65 or older from the 2004-2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Serious psychological distress was defined as having a score of 13 or higher on the K6 scale of nonspecific psychological distress. Descriptive analyses and logistic regression modeling were applied. RESULTS: Among community-dwelling older adults, 4.7% had serious psychological distress in the past year. Among those with past-year serious psychological distress, 37.7% received mental health services in the past year (4.8% received inpatient services, 15.8% received outpatient services, and 32.1% received prescription medications) (weighted percentages). Logistic regression results suggested that among older adults with serious psychological distress, receipt of mental health services was more likely among women, non-Hispanic whites, those who were married, those who were highly educated, Medicare-Medicaid dual beneficiaries, those with a major depressive episode, and those with more general medical conditions. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest the need to screen for mental health problems among older adults and to improve the use and the quality of their mental health services. Since 2008 significant changes have revolutionized payment for mental health care and may promote access to mental health care in this population. Further studies are needed to assess trends in mental health service utilization among older adults and in the quality of their mental health care over time.

Associations between duration of illicit drug use and health conditions: results from the 2005-2007 national surveys on drug use and health.

PURPOSE: To estimate and compare prevalence rates of lifetime health conditions by inferred duration of illicit drug use among the general U.S. adult population and to investigate associations between duration of use of each specific illicit drug (marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, or inhalant) and each lifetime health condition after controlling for potential confounding factors. METHODS: Data from respondents aged 35 to 49 (N = 29,195) from the 2005-2007 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) were analyzed. RESULTS: The prevalence rates of a broad range of health conditions by duration of use of specific illicit drug among persons 35 to 49 years of age in the United States were estimated and compared. After adjustment for potential confounding factors, the results of 20 multivariate logistic regression models indicated positive associations between duration of marijuana use and anxiety, depression, sexually transmitted disease (STD), bronchitis, and lung cancer; between duration of cocaine use and anxiety and pancreatitis; between duration of heroin use and anxiety, hepatitis, and tuberculosis; between duration of hallucinogen use and tinnitus and STD; and between duration of inhalant use and anxiety, depression, HIV/AIDS, STD, tuberculosis, bronchitis, asthma, sinusitis, and tinnitus. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides initial analyses on the relationships between illicit drug use and health conditions based on a large nationally representative sample. These results can help prepare for treating health problems among former and continuing illicit drug users.

Estimated drug use based on direct questioning and open-ended questions: responses in the 2006 National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

Substance use surveys may use open-ended items to supplement questions about specific drugs and obtain more exhaustive information on illicit drug use. However these questions are likely to underestimate the prevalence of use of specific drugs. Little is known about the extent of such underestimation or the groups most prone to under-reporting. Using data from the 2006 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), a civilian, non-institutionalized population survey of persons aged 12 or older in the United States, we compared drug use estimates based on open-ended questions with estimates from a new set of direct questions that occurred later in the interview. For these drugs, estimates of lifetime drug use based on open-ended questions often were at least seven times lower than those based on direct questions. Among adults identified in direct questions as substance users, lower educational levels were consistently associated with non-reporting of use in the open-ended questions. Given NSDUH's large annual sample size (approximately 67,000 interviews), combining data across future survey years could increase our understanding of characteristics associated with non-reporting of use in open-ended questions and allow drug use trends to be extrapolated to survey years in which only open-ended question data are available.

Substance use disorder among older adults in the United States in 2020.

AIMS: This study aimed to project the number of people aged 50 years or older with substance use disorder (alcohol/illicit drug dependence or abuse) in the United States in 2020. DESIGN: Logistic regression models were applied to estimate parameters predicting past-year substance use disorder using the 2002-06 National Survey on Drug Use and Health data. We applied these parameters to the projected US 2020 population to estimate the number of adults aged 50 or older with substance use disorder in 2020. SETTING: Non-institutionalized US residences. PARTICIPANTS: Representative sample of the US civilian, non-institutionalized population. MEASUREMENTS: Substance use disorder is classified based on criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition. FINDINGS: Due to the large population size and high substance use rate of the baby-boom cohort, the number of adults aged 50 or older with substance use disorder is projected to double from 2.8 million (annual average) in 2002-06 to 5.7 million in 2020. Increases are projected for all examined gender, race/ethnicity and age groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our estimates provide critical information for policymakers to allocate resources and develop prevention and treatment approaches to address future needs of the US older adult population with substance use disorder.