Increased physical activity cosegregates with higher intake of carbohydrate and total calories in a subcongenic mouse strain.

C57BL/6 J (B6) and CAST/EiJ (CAST), the inbred strain derived from M. musculus castaneus, differ in nutrient intake behaviors, including dietary fat and carbohydrate consumption in a two-diet-choice paradigm. Significant quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for carbohydrate (Mnic1) and total energy intake (Kcal2) are present between these strains on chromosome (Chr) 17. Here we report the refinement of the Chr 17 QTL in a subcongenic strain of the B6.CAST-( D17Mit19-D17Mit91 ) congenic mice described previously. This new subcongenic strain possesses CAST Chr 17 donor alleles from 4.8 to 45.4 Mb on a B6 background. Similar to CAST, the subcongenic mice exhibit increased carbohydrate and total calorie intake per body weight, while fat intake remains equivalent. Unexpectedly, this CAST genomic segment also confers two new physical activity phenotypes: 22% higher spontaneous physical activity levels and significantly increased voluntary wheel-running activity compared with the parental B6 strain. Overall, these data suggest that gene(s) involved in carbohydrate preference and increased physical activity are contained within the proximal region of Chr 17. Interval-specific microarray analysis in hypothalamus and skeletal muscle revealed differentially expressed genes within the subcongenic region, including neuropeptide W (Npw); glyoxalase I (Glo1); cytochrome P450, family 4, subfamily f, polypeptide 1 (Cyp4f15); phospholipase A2, group VII (Pla2g7); and phosphodiesterase 9a (Pde9a). This subcongenic strain offers a unique model for dissecting the contributions and possible interactions among genes controlling food intake and physical activity, key components of energy balance.

Enhanced ER-associated degradation of HMG CoA reductase causes embryonic lethality associated with Ubiad1 deficiency.

UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 (UBIAD1) synthesizes the vitamin K subtype menaquinone-4 (MK-4). Previous studies in cultured cells (Schumacher et al., 2015) revealed that UBIAD1 also inhibits endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) of ubiquitinated HMG CoA reductase (HMGCR), the rate-limiting enzyme of the mevalonate pathway that produces cholesterol and essential nonsterol isoprenoids. Gene knockout studies were previously attempted to explore the function of UBIAD1 in mice; however, homozygous germ-line elimination of the Ubiad1 gene caused embryonic lethality. We now report that homozygous deletion of Ubiad1 is produced in knockin mice expressing ubiquitination/ERAD-resistant HMGCR. Thus, embryonic lethality of Ubiad1 deficiency results from depletion of mevalonate-derived products owing to enhanced ERAD of HMGCR rather than from reduced synthesis of MK-4. These findings provide genetic evidence for the significance of UBIAD1 in regulation of cholesterol synthesis and offer the opportunity in future studies for the discovery of new physiological roles of MK-4.

The stability of the transcriptome during the estrous cycle in four regions of the mouse brain.

We analyzed the transcriptome of the C57BL/6J mouse hypothalamus, hippocampus, neocortex, and cerebellum to determine estrous cycle-specific changes in these four brain regions. We found almost 16,000 genes are present in one or more of the brain areas but only 210 genes, ∼1.3%, are significantly changed as a result of the estrous cycle. The hippocampus has the largest number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (82), followed by the neocortex (76), hypothalamus (63), and cerebellum (26). Most of these DEGs (186/210) are differentially expressed in only one of the four brain regions. A key finding is the unique expression pattern of growth hormone (Gh) and prolactin (Prl). Gh and Prl are the only DEGs to be expressed during only one stage of the estrous cycle (metestrus). To gain insight into the function of the DEGs, we examined gene ontology and phenotype enrichment and found significant enrichment for genes associated with myelination, hormone stimulus, and abnormal hormone levels. Additionally, 61 of the 210 DEGs are known to change in response to estrogen in the brain. 50 of the 210 genes differentially expressed as a result of the estrous cycle are related to myelin and oligodendrocytes and 12 of the 63 DEGs in the hypothalamus are oligodendrocyte- and myelin-specific genes. This transcriptomic analysis reveals that gene expression in the female mouse brain is remarkably stable during the estrous cycle and demonstrates that the genes that do fluctuate are functionally related.

Gene expression in salivary glands: effects of diet and mouse chromosome 17 locus regulating macronutrient intake.

Dcpp2, Prrt1, and Has1 are plausible candidate genes for the Mnic1 (macronutrient intake-carbohydrate) locus on mouse chromosome 17, based on their map positions and sequence variants, documented expression in salivary glands, and the important role of saliva in oral food processing and taste. We investigated the effects of genotype and diet on gene expression in salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, sublingual) of carbohydrate-preferring, C57BL6J.CAST/EiJ-17.1 subcongenic mice compared to fat-preferring wild-type C57BL/6J. To achieve accurate normalization of real-time quantitative RT-PCR data, we evaluated multiple reference genes to identify the most stably expressed control genes in salivary gland tissues, and then used geometric averaging to produce a reliable normalization factor. Gene expression was measured in mice fed different diets: (1) rodent chow, (2) macronutrient selection diets, (3) high-fat diet, and (4) low-fat diet. In addition, we measured salivary hyaluronan concentrations. All three genes showed strain differences in expression, in at least one major salivary gland, and diet effects were observed in two glands. Dcpp2 expression was limited primarily to sublingual gland, and strongly decreased in B6.CAST-17.1 subcongenic mice compared to wild-type B6, regardless of diet. In contrast, both genotype and diet affected Prrt1 and Has1 expression, in a gland-specific manner, for example, Prrt1 expression in the parotid gland alone was strongly reduced in both mouse strains when fed macronutrient selection diet compared to chow. Notably, we discovered an association between diet composition and salivary hyaluronan content. These results demonstrate robust effects of genetic background and diet composition on candidate gene expression in mouse salivary glands.

An Examination of Dynamic Gene Expression Changes in the Mouse Brain During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period.

The developmental transition to motherhood requires gene expression changes that alter the brain to drive the female to perform maternal behaviors. We broadly examined the global transcriptional response in the mouse maternal brain, by examining four brain regions: hypothalamus, hippocampus, neocortex, and cerebellum, in virgin females, two pregnancy time points, and three postpartum time points. We find that overall there are hundreds of differentially expressed genes, but each brain region and time point shows a unique molecular signature, with only 49 genes differentially expressed in all four regions. Interestingly, a set of "early-response genes" is repressed in all brain regions during pregnancy and postpartum stages. Several genes previously implicated in underlying postpartum depression change expression. This study serves as an atlas of gene expression changes in the maternal brain, with the results demonstrating that pregnancy, parturition, and postpartum maternal experience substantially impact diverse brain regions.

High-resolution mapping of a genetic locus regulating preferential carbohydrate intake, total kilocalories, and food volume on mouse chromosome 17.

The specific genes regulating the quantitative variation in macronutrient preference and food intake are virtually unknown. We fine mapped a previously identified mouse chromosome 17 region harboring quantitative trait loci (QTL) with large effects on preferential macronutrient intake-carbohydrate (Mnic1), total kilcalories (Kcal2), and total food volume (Tfv1) using interval-specific strains. These loci were isolated in the [C57BL/6J.CAST/EiJ-17.1-(D17Mit19-D17Mit50); B6.CAST-17.1] strain, possessing a ∼ 40.1 Mb region of CAST DNA on the B6 genome. In a macronutrient selection paradigm, the B6.CAST-17.1 subcongenic mice eat 30% more calories from the carbohydrate-rich diet, ∼ 10% more total calories, and ∼ 9% more total food volume per body weight. In the current study, a cross between carbohydrate-preferring B6.CAST-17.1 and fat-preferring, inbred B6 mice was used to generate a subcongenic-derived F2 mapping population; genotypes were determined using a high-density, custom SNP panel. Genetic linkage analysis substantially reduced the 95% confidence interval for Mnic1 (encompassing Kcal2 and Tfv1) from 40.1 to 29.5 Mb and more precisely established its boundaries. Notably, no genetic linkage for self-selected fat intake was detected, underscoring the carbohydrate-specific effect of this locus. A second key finding was the separation of two energy balance QTLs: Mnic1/Kcal2/Tfv1 for food intake and a newly discovered locus regulating short term body weight gain. The Mnic1/Kcal2/Tfv1 QTL was further de-limited to 19.0 Mb, based on the absence of nutrient intake phenotypes in subcongenic HQ17IIa mice. Analyses of available sequence data and gene ontologies, along with comprehensive expression profiling in the hypothalamus of non-recombinant, cast/cast and b6/b6 F2 controls, focused our attention on candidates within the QTL interval. Zfp811, Zfp870, and Btnl6 showed differential expression and also contain stop codons, but have no known biology related to food intake regulation. The genes Decr2, Ppard and Agapt1 are more appealing candidates because of their involvement in lipid metabolism and down-regulation in carbohydrate-preferring animals.