Down-regulation of KLF2 in lung fibroblasts is linked with COVID-19 immunofibrosis and restored by combined inhibition of NETs, JAK-1/2 and IL-6 signaling.

Kruppel-like factor 2 (KLF2) has been linked with fibrosis and neutrophil-associated thromboinflammation; however, its role in COVID-19 remains elusive. We investigated the effect of disease microenvironment on the fibrotic potential of human lung fibroblasts (LFs) and its association with KLF2 expression. LFs stimulated with plasma from severe COVID-19 patients down-regulated KLF2 expression at mRNA/protein and functional level acquiring a pre-fibrotic phenotype, as indicated by increased CCN2/collagen levels. Pre-incubation with the COMBI-treatment-agents (DNase I and JAKs/IL-6 inhibitors baricitinib/tocilizumab) restored KLF2 levels of LFs to normal abolishing their fibrotic activity. LFs stimulated with plasma from COMBI-treated patients at day-7 expressed lower CCN2 and higher KLF2 levels, compared to plasma prior-to-treatment, an effect not observed in standard-of-care treatment. In line with this, COMBI-treated patients had better outcome than standard-of-care group. These data link fibroblast KLF2 with NETosis and JAK/IL-6 signaling, suggesting the potential of combined therapeutic strategies in immunofibrotic diseases, such as COVID-19.

Applications and Advances of Multicellular Tumor Spheroids: Challenges in Their Development and Analysis.

Biomedical research requires both in vitro and in vivo studies in order to explore disease processes or drug interactions. Foundational investigations have been performed at the cellular level using two-dimensional cultures as the gold-standard method since the early 20th century. However, three-dimensional (3D) cultures have emerged as a new tool for tissue modeling over the last few years, bridging the gap between in vitro and animal model studies. Cancer has been a worldwide challenge for the biomedical community due to its high morbidity and mortality rates. Various methods have been developed to produce multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTSs), including scaffold-free and scaffold-based structures, which usually depend on the demands of the cells used and the related biological question. MCTSs are increasingly utilized in studies involving cancer cell metabolism and cell cycle defects. These studies produce massive amounts of data, which demand elaborate and complex tools for thorough analysis. In this review, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of several up-to-date methods used to construct MCTSs. In addition, we also present advanced methods for analyzing MCTS features. As MCTSs more closely mimic the in vivo tumor environment, compared to 2D monolayers, they can evolve to be an appealing model for in vitro tumor biology studies.

Neutrophil-fibroblast crosstalk drives immunofibrosis in Crohn's disease through IFNα pathway.

Introduction: Crohn's disease (CD) is characterized by chronic inflammation and intestinal fibrosis leading to lifelong complications. However, the disease pathogenesis remains elusive, and the therapeutic options are limited. Here, we investigated the interaction between neutrophils and intestinal fibroblasts in the development of CD immunofibrosis, a disease mechanism predisposing to inflammatory and fibrotic complications. Methods: Peripheral neutrophils, enriched neutrophil extracellular traps (eNETs), serum, primary intestinal fibroblasts (PIFs) and intestinal biopsies from CD, ulcerative colitis (UC) patients, and healthy individuals (HI), were studied. Transcriptome analysis of neutrophils, multi-cytokine profiling and cell-based functional assays at mRNA/protein level were performed. Results: Compared to UC, PIFs from CD patients, independently to the presence of strictures, displayed a distinct pro-fibrotic phenotype characterized by negative Krüppellike Factor-2 (KLF2) and increased cellular communication network factor-2 (CCN2) expression leading to collagen production. In both UC and CD, PIFs-derived IL-8 acted as a culprit chemoattractant for neutrophils in the intestine, where CD neutrophils were accumulated close to fibrotic lesions. Functionally, only CD neutrophils via eNETs induced a CD-like phenotype in HI PIFs, suggesting their fibrotic plasticity. High IFNa in serum and IFΝ-responsive signature in peripheral neutrophils were observed in CD, distinguishing it from UC. Moreover, CD serum stimulated the release of fibrogenic eNETs from neutrophils in an IFNa-dependent manner, suggesting the priming role of IFNa in circulating neutrophils. Inhibition of eNETs or JAK signaling in neutrophils or PIFs prevented the neutrophil-mediated fibrotic effect on PIFs. Furthermore, both serum IFNa levels and mRNA levels of key IFN signaling components in neutrophils were wellcorrelated with CD severity. Conclusions: This study reveals the important role of the IFNa/neutrophil/fibroblast axis in CD immunofibrosis, suggesting candidate biomarkers and putative therapeutic targets.

HURP localization in metaphase is the result of a multi-step process requiring its phosphorylation at Ser627 residue.

Faithful chromosome segregation during cell division requires accurate mitotic spindle formation. As mitosis occurs rapidly within the cell cycle, the proteins involved in mitotic spindle assembly undergo rapid changes, including their interactions with other proteins. The proper localization of the HURP protein on the kinetochore fibers, in close proximity to chromosomes, is crucial for ensuring accurate congression and segregation of chromosomes. In this study, we employ photoactivation and FRAP experiments to investigate the impact of alterations in microtubule flux and phosphorylation of HURP at the Ser627 residue on its dynamics. Furthermore, through immunoprecipitations assays, we demonstrate the interactions of HURP with various proteins, such as TPX2, Aurora A, Eg5, Dynein, Kif5B, and Importin ß, in mammalian cells during mitosis. We also find that phosphorylation of HURP at Ser627 regulates its interaction with these partners during mitosis. Our findings suggest that HURP participates in at least two distinct complexes during metaphase to ensure its proper localization in close proximity to chromosomes, thereby promoting the bundling and stabilization of kinetochore fibers.

Development of a Human Intestinal Organoid Model for In Vitro Studies on Gut Inflammation and Fibrosis.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBDs) are characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation and fibrosis, the latter being the predominant denominator for long-term complications. Epithelial and mesenchymal 2D cultures are highly utilized in vitro models for the preclinical evaluation of anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic therapies. More recently, human intestinal organoids (HIOs), a new 3D in vitro model derived from pluripotent stem cells, have the advantage to closely resemble the architecture of the intestinal mucosa. However, the appropriate timing for the study of inflammatory and fibrotic responses, during HIO development, has not been adequately investigated. We developed HIOs from the human embryonic stem cell line, H1, and examined the expression of mesenchymal markers during their maturation process. We also investigated the effect of inflammatory stimuli on the expression of fibrotic and immunological mediators. Serial evaluation of the expression of mesenchymal and extracellular matrix (ECM) markers revealed that HIOs have an adequately developed mesenchymal component, which gradually declines through culture passages. Specifically, CD90, collagen type I, collagen type III, and fibronectin were highly expressed in early passages but gradually diminished in late passages. The proinflammatory cytokines IL-1α and TNF-α induced the mRNA expression of fibronectin, collagen types I and III, tissue factor (TF), and alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) primarily in early passages. Similarly, HIOs elicited strong mRNA and protein mesenchymal (CXCL10) and epithelial (CXCL1, CCL2, CXCL8, and CCL20) chemokine responses in early but not late passages. In contrast, the epithelial tight junction components, CLDN1 and JAMA, responded to inflammatory stimulation independently of the culture passage. Our findings indicate that this HIO model contains a functional mesenchymal component, during early passages, and underline the significance of the mesenchymal cells' fitness in inflammatory and fibrotic responses. Therefore, we propose that this model is suitable for the study of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions in early passages when the mesenchymal component is active.

Folate and Pegylated Aliphatic Polyester Nanoparticles for Targeted Anticancer Drug Delivery.

PURPOSE: The use of chemotherapeutic agents to combat cancer is accompanied by high toxicity due to their inability to discriminate between cancer and normal cells. Therefore, cancer therapy research has focused on the targeted delivery of drugs to cancer cells. Here, we report an in vitro study of folate-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(propylene succinate) nanoparticles (FA-PPSu-PEG-NPs) as a vehicle for targeted delivery of the anticancer drug paclitaxel in breast and cervical cancer cell lines. METHODS: Paclitaxel-loaded-FA-PPSu-PEG-NPs characterization was performed by in vitro drug release studies and cytotoxicity assays. The NPs cellular uptake and internalization mechanism were monitored by live-cell imaging in different cancer cell lines. Expression of folate receptor-α (FOLR1) was examined in these cell lines, and specific FOLR1-mediated entry of the FA-PPSu-PEG-NPs was investigated by free folic acid competition. Using inhibitors for other endocytic pathways, alternative, non-FOLR1 dependent routes for NPs uptake were also examined. RESULTS: Drug release experiments of Paclitaxel-loaded PPSu-PEG-NPs indicated a prolonged release of Paclitaxel over several days. Cytotoxicity of Paclitaxel-loaded PPSu-PEG-NPs was similar to free drug, as monitored in cancer cell lines. Live imaging of cells treated with either free Paclitaxel or Paclitaxel-loaded PPSu-PEG-NPs demonstrated tubulin-specific cell cycle arrest, with similar kinetics. Folate-conjugated NPs (FA-PPSu-PEG-NPs) targeted the FOLR1 receptor, as shown by free folic acid competition of the FA-PPSu-PEG-NPs cellular uptake in some of the cell lines tested. However, due to the differential expression of FOLR1 in the cancer cell lines, as well as the intrinsic differences between the different endocytic pathways utilized by different cell types, other mechanisms of nanoparticle cellular entry were also used, revealing that dynamin-dependent endocytosis and macropinocytosis pathways mediate, at least partially, cellular entry of the FA-PPSu-PEG NPs. CONCLUSION: Our data provide evidence that Paclitaxel-loaded-FA-PPSu-PEG-NPs can be used for targeted delivery of the drug, FA-PPSu-PEG-NPs can be used as vehicles for other anticancer drugs and their cellular uptake is mediated through a combination of FOLR1 receptor-specific endocytosis, and macropinocytosis. The exploration of the different cellular uptake mechanisms could improve treatment efficacy or allow a decrease in dosage of anticancer drugs.