An age-dependent vocal tract model for males and females based on anatomic measurements.

The purpose of this study was to take a first step toward constructing a developmental and sex-specific version of a parametric vocal tract area function model representative of male and female vocal tracts ranging in age from infancy to 12 yrs, as well as adults. Anatomic measurements collected from a large imaging database of male and female children and adults provided the dataset from which length warping and cross-dimension scaling functions were derived, and applied to the adult-based vocal tract model to project it backward along an age continuum. The resulting model was assessed qualitatively by projecting hypothetical vocal tract shapes onto midsagittal images from the cohort of children, and quantitatively by comparison of formant frequencies produced by the model to those reported in the literature. An additional validation of modeled vocal tract shapes was made possible by comparison to cross-sectional area measurements obtained for children and adults using acoustic pharyngometry. This initial attempt to generate a sex-specific developmental vocal tract model paves a path to study the relation of vocal tract dimensions to documented prepubertal acoustic differences.

Anatomic development of the oral and pharyngeal portions of the vocal tract: an imaging study.

The growth of the vocal tract (VT) is known to be non-uniform insofar as there are regional differences in anatomic maturation. This study presents quantitative anatomic data on the growth of the oral and pharyngeal portions of the VT from 605 imaging studies for individuals between birth and 19 years. The oral (horizontal) portion of the VT was segmented into lip-thickness, anterior-cavity-length, oropharyngeal-width, and VT-oral, and the pharyngeal (vertical) portion of the VT into posterior-cavity-length, and nasopharyngeal-length. The data were analyzed to determine growth trend, growth rate, and growth type (neural or somatic). Findings indicate differences in the growth trend of segments/variables analyzed, with significant sex differences for all variables except anterior-cavity-length. While the growth trend of some variables displays prepubertal sex differences at specific age ranges, the importance of such localized differences appears to be masked by overall growth rate differences between males and females. Finally, assessment of growth curve type indicates that most VT structures follow a combined/hybrid (somatic and neural) growth curve with structures in the vertical plane having a predominantly somatic growth pattern. These data on the non-uniform growth of the vocal tract reveal anatomic differences that contribute to documented acoustic differences in prepubertal speech production.

Developmental craniofacial anthropometry: Assessment of race effects.

Differences in craniofacial anatomy among racial groups have been documented in a variety of structures, but the oral and maxillofacial regions have been shown to be a particularly defining region of variability between different racial/ethnic groups. Such comparisons are informative, but they neither address developmental changes of the craniofacial anatomy nor do they assess or take into account the natural variability within individual races that may account for similar reported, across-group variations. The purpose of this report was to compare-using medical imaging studies-the growth trend of select race-sensitive craniofacial variables in the oral and pharyngeal regions when all races [White, Asian, Black, and Hispanic (AR)] are included versus only a single race category [White (WR)]. Race effect was tested by comparing sex-specific growth fits (fourth degree polynomial model) for AR versus WR data. Findings indicate that the inclusion of all races versus a single race did not significantly alter the growth model fits. Thus, the inclusion of all races permits the advancement of general growth models; however, methodologically, it is best to treat the race variable as a covariate in all future analysis to test for both potential all race effects or individual race effects, on general growth models.

Estimating head circumference from pediatric imaging studies an improved method.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: Head circumference (HC) is an important developmental measure used both clinically and in research. This paper advances a method to estimate HC from imaging studies when a direct HC-tape measurement cannot be secured. Unlike former approaches, the model takes into account the fact that growth is nonlinear, and that HC growth rates are sexually dimorphic. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A model was first established based on published data to represent the normative HC growth curves for males and females. Then, using magnetic resonance (MR) studies of 90 subjects (birth to 18 years), a linear method to estimate HC was adapted to take into account the nonlinear and sex-specific HC normative growth curves. The accuracy of this model was tested prospectively by comparing the estimated HC with HC measurements from twelve computed tomography (CT) studies using the perimeter tracing of oblique slices that correspond to the plane at which a clinical HC-tape measurement is secured. RESULTS: Prospective comparison of estimated HC to HC tracings using a paired t-test validates that the model provides an accurate estimation of the measured HC (t=-.845, p=0.416 overall; t=.54, p=.615 for females and t=-2.34, p=.066 for males). DISCUSSION: HC can be calculated indirectly from imaging studies. The model is highly predictive of HC-tape measurements and provides the physician or scientist with a very reliable method to secure HC when it is not feasible to secure the HC-tape measurement.

Developmental sexual dimorphism of the oral and pharyngeal portions of the vocal tract: an imaging study.

PURPOSE: The anatomic origin for prepubertal vowel acoustic differences between male and female subjects remains unknown. The purpose of this study is to examine developmental sex differences in vocal tract (VT) length and its oral and pharyngeal portions. METHOD: Nine VT variables were measured from 605 imaging studies (magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography) of subjects between birth and age 19 years. Given sex differences in growth rate (Vorperian et al., 2009), assessment of sex differences was done through use of a localized comparison window of 60 months. Analysis entailed applying this comparison window first to 4 discrete age cohorts, followed by a progressive assessment in which this comparison window was moved in 1-month increments from birth across all ages. RESULTS: Findings document significant postpubertal sex differences in both the oral and pharyngeal portions of the VT. They also document periods of significant prepubertal sex differences in the oral region first, followed by segments in the pharyngeal region. CONCLUSIONS: Assessment of developmental sex differences using localized age ranges is effective in unveiling sex differences that growth rate differences may conceal. Findings on the presence of prepubertal sex differences in the oral region of the VT may clarify, in part, the anatomic basis of documented prepubertal acoustic differences.

Measurement consistency from magnetic resonance images.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: In quantifying medical images, length-based measurements are still obtained manually. Due to possible human error, a measurement protocol is required to guarantee the consistency of measurements. In this work, we review various statistical techniques that can be used in determining measurement consistency. The focus is on detecting a possible measurement bias and determining the robustness of the procedures to outliers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We review correlation analysis, linear regression, Bland-Altman method, paired t-test, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). These techniques were applied to measurements, obtained by two raters, of head and neck structures from magnetic resonance images. RESULTS: The correlation analysis and the linear regression were shown to be insufficient for detecting measurement inconsistency. They are also very sensitive to outliers. The widely used Bland-Altman method is a visualization technique, so it lacks the numeric quantification. The paired t-test tends to be sensitive to small measurement bias. In contrast, ANOVA performs well even under small measurement bias. CONCLUSIONS: In almost all cases, using only one method is insufficient and it is recommended that several methods be used simultaneously. In general, ANOVA performs the best.