Contrasting phylogeographic pattern among Eudyptes penguins around the Southern Ocean.

Since at least the middle-Miocene, the Antarctic Polar Front (APF) and the Subtropical Front (STF) appear to have been the main drivers of diversification of marine biota in the Southern Ocean. However, highly migratory marine birds and mammals challenge this paradigm and the importance of oceanographic barriers. Eudyptes penguins range from the Antarctic Peninsula to subantarctic islands and some of the southernmost subtropical islands. Because of recent diversification, the number of species remains uncertain. Here we analyze two mtDNA (HVRI, COI) and two nuclear (ODC, AK1) markers from 13 locations of five putative Eudyptes species: rockhopper (E. filholi, E. chrysocome, and E. moseleyi), macaroni (E. chrysolophus) and royal penguins (E. schlegeli). Our results show a strong phylogeographic structure among rockhopper penguins from South America, subantarctic and subtropical islands supporting the recognition of three separated species of rockhopper penguins. Although genetic divergence was neither observed among macaroni penguins from the Antarctic Peninsula and sub-Antarctic islands nor between macaroni and royal penguins, population genetic analyses revealed population genetic structure in both cases. We suggest that the APF and STF can act as barriers for these species. While the geographic distance between colonies might play a role, their impact/incidence on gene flow may vary between species and colonies.

Hydrological and depositional processes associated with recent glacier recession in Yanamarey catchment, Cordillera Blanca (Peru).

In this study, we investigate changes in the glaciated surface and the formation of lakes in the headwater of the Querococha watershed in Cordillera Blanca (Peru) using 24 Landsat images from 1975 to 2014. Information of glacier retreat was integrated with available climate data, the first survey of recent depositional dynamics in proglacial Yanamarey Lake (4600m a.s.l.), and a relatively short hydrological record (2002-2014) at the outlet of Yanamarey Lake. A statistically significant temperature warming (0.21°C decade-1 for mean annual temperature) has been detected in the region, and it caused a reduction of the glacierized area since 1975 from 3.5 to 1.4km-2. New small lakes formed in the deglaciated areas, increasing the flooded area from1.8ha in 1976 to 2.8ha in 2014. A positive correlation between annual rates of glacier recession and runoff was found. Sediment cores revealed a high sedimentation rate (>1cmyr-1) and two contrasted facies, suggesting a shift toward a reduction of meltwater inputs and higher hydrological variability likely due to an increasing role of precipitation on runoff during the last decades. Despite the age control uncertainties, the main transition likely occurred around 1998-2000, correlating with the end of the phase with maximum warming rates and glacier retreat during the 1980s and 1990s, and the slowing down of expansion of surface lake-covered surface. With this hydrological - paleolimnological approach we have documented the association between recent climate variability and glacier recession and the rapid transfer of hydroclimate signal to depositional and geochemical processes in high elevation Andean environments. This, study also alerts about water quality risks as proglacial lakes act as secondary reservoirs that trap trace and minor elements in high altitude basins.

[Evaluation of the higher brain functions in 1st and 7th grade schoolchildren belonging to two different socioeconomic groups]. / Evaluación de las funciones cerebrales superiores en niños de 1 y 7 grado, pertenecientes a dos grupos socioeconómicos diferentes.

INTRODUCTION: The higher brain functions, together with the devices that sustain them, are essential assets belonging to human beings which are used to situate themselves in the world. They can be studied by conducting neuropsychological tests, the results of which vary according to demographic factors, such as age, sex, hand dominance, culture and level of schooling. The socioeconomic level (SEL) is another factor to be taken into account and must also be evaluated. AIMS: Our objective was to evaluate and analyse the influence of SEL on the results obtained from neuropsychological tests carried out in normal school-age children. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We studied 401 normal children, of both sexes, taken at random, at the beginning (1st grade, 6 years old) and at the end (7th grade, 12 years old) of elementary school and belonging to two different SEL: high and low. Schools belonging to different categories were selected: public, private, urban and suburban. A battery of tests that is commonly used in Neuropsychology was utilised to evaluate laterality, spatial orientation, integration (Bender's test and the Rey figure test), attention, memory and the areas of language, gnosis and praxis. RESULTS: Significant differences were found in relation to the SEL in the 1st and 7th grade tests: 20/27 (74%) and 17/27 (62%), respectively. These always meant lower results in the low SEL, except body scheme, ideomotor praxis and phonological coding, which in the 7th grade run in the opposite direction. Results were not related to the type of school (urban-suburban, public-private), sex, laterality or teachers' characteristics. Differences were more striking in the area of language, basic devices (attention, memory) and in the tests that integrate several different functions (Bender's test, Rey figure test). CONCLUSIONS: SEL is linked to the results obtained in neuropsychological evaluation tests. There is a direct relationship with low results in the low level. There is also a correlation between certain family characteristics associated to the SEL and the scores in the cognitive evaluation tests.

Social dominance and behavioral consequences of intrauterine position in female groups of the social rodent Octodon degus.

Female phenotypic masculinization is a phenomenon widely described among mammals. In species that produce litters, female masculinization occurs in utero during late trimester of pregnancy as consequence of the intrauterine position phenomenon (IUP), affecting morphological, physiological and behavioral traits during adulthood. One morphological trait that is affected by IUP is anogenital distance (AGD) that is utilized as proxy of the female phenotypic masculinization. In rodents, IUP have ecological and behavioral effects including aggressiveness, territory marking, activity level, parental care and sociality. In this work, we evaluated how female masculinization (or feminization) affects aggressive behavior and determines social dominance, which in turn could lead to the structuring of social groups through dominance hierarchy formation in degus. We carried out a laboratory study where we established artificial social groups composed of females with the similar and different AGDs, and recorded all social interactions identifying initiator/recipient in dyad relationships and the nature of each interaction. Female aggression varied depending on the degree of females' masculinization, but only in mixed groups (those composed of females with different AGDs) was a hierarchical relationship observed. Furthermore, dominance hierarchies were constructed mostly on the basis of submissive, rather than aggressive interactions. Finally, female behavioral and morphological masculinization was not due to higher plasma testosterone levels, which would indicate that the masculinization of the female phenotype is the consequence of the organizational effects of steroid hormones during ontogeny.

Evaluación de las funciones cerebrales superiores en niños de 1. º y 7. º grado pertenecientes a dos grupos socioeconómicos diferentes / Evaluation of the higher brain functions in 1st and 7th grade schoolchildren belonging to two different socioeconomic groups

Introducción. Las funciones cerebrales superiores y los dispositivos que las sustentan son posesiones fundamentales de los seres humanos, con las cuales se insertan en el mundo. Su estudio puede realizarse mediante pruebas neuropsicológicas, cuyos resultados varían en función de factores demográficos como la edad, el sexo, la dominancia manual, la cultura y el nivel educativo. El nivel socio-económico (NSE) es otro factor a tener en cuenta y que requiere su evaluación. Objetivo. Evaluar y analizar la influencia del NSE en los resultados obtenidos mediante pruebas neuropsicológicas en niños normales en edad escolar. Sujetos y métodos. Se estudiaron 401 niños normales, de ambos sexos, tomados al azar, al comienzo (1.er grado, 6 años) y al final (7.º grado, 12 años) de la escuela primaria y pertenecientes a dos NSE: alto y bajo. Se seleccionaron escuelas de diferentes categorías: públicas, privadas, urbanas y suburbanas. Se utilizó una batería de pruebas de uso habitual en Neuropsicología destinadas a evaluar la lateralidad, la orientación espacial, la integración (test de Bender y figura de Rey), la atención, la memoria y las áreas del lenguaje, las gnosias y las praxias. Resultados. Se encontraron diferencias significativas relacionadas con el NSE en las pruebas de 1.er y 7.º grados: 20/27 (74%) y 17/27 (62%), respectivamente. Los resultados siempre fueron más bajos en el NSE bajo, con la excepción de esquema corporal, praxias ideomotoras y código fonológico, que en 7.º grado invierten el sentido. Los resultados no se relacionaron con el tipo de escuela (urbana-suburbana, pública-privada), el sexo, la lateralidad o las características de los docentes. Las diferencias fueron más marcadas en el área del lenguaje, de los dispositivos básicos (atención, memoria) y de las pruebas que integran varias funciones (test de Bender, figura de Rey). Conclusiones. El NSE se asocia con los resultados obtenidos en las pruebas de evaluación neuropsicológica. La relación es directa con resultados bajos en el nivel bajo. Ciertas características familiares asociadas al NSE se correlacionan con los resultados de las pruebas de evaluación cognitiva

Introduction. The higher brain functions, together with the devices that sustain them, are essential assets belonging to human beings which are used to situate themselves in the world. They can be studied by conducting neuropsychological tests, the results of which vary according to demographic factors, such as age, sex, hand dominance, culture and level of schooling. The socioeconomic level (SEL) is another factor to be taken into account and must also be evaluated. Aims. Our objective was to evaluate and analyse the influence of SEL on the results obtained from neuropsychological tests carried out in normal school-age children. Subjects and methods. We studied 401 normal children, of both sexes, taken at random, at the beginning (1st grade, 6 years old) and at the end (7th grade, 12 years old) of elementary school and belonging to two different SEL: high and low. Schools belonging to different categories were selected: public, private, urban and suburban. A battery of tests that is commonly used in Neuropsychology was utilised to evaluate laterality, spatial orientation, integration (Bender's test and the Rey figure test), attention, memory and the areas of language, gnosis and praxis. Results. Significant differences were found in relation to the SEL in the 1st and 7th grade tests: 20/27 (74%) and 17/27 (62%), respectively. These always meant lower results in the low SEL, except body scheme, ideomotor praxis and phonological coding, which in the 7th grade run in the opposite direction. Results were not related to the type of school (urban-suburban, public-private), sex, laterality or teachers' characteristics. Differences were more striking in the area of language, basic devices (attention, memory) and in the tests that integrate several different functions (Bender’s test, Rey figure test). Conclusions. SEL is linked to the results obtained in neuropsychological evaluation tests. There is a direct relationship with low results in the low level. There is also a correlation between certain family characteristics associated to the SEL and the scores in the cognitive evaluation tests