Anatomic Basis of Rectal Cancer Staging: Clarifying Controversies and Misconceptions.

Rectal MRI provides a detailed depiction of pelvic anatomy; specifically, the relationship of the tumor to key anatomic structures, including the mesorectal fascia, anterior peritoneal reflection, and sphincter complex. However, anatomic inconsistencies, pitfalls, and confusion exist, which can have a strong impact on interpretation and treatment. These areas of confusion include the definition of the rectum itself, specifically differentiation of the rectum from the anal canal and the sigmoid colon, and delineation of the high versus low rectum. Other areas of confusion include the relative locations of the mesorectal fascia and peritoneum and their significance in staging and treatment, the difference between the mesorectal fascia and circumferential resection margin, involvement of the sphincter complex, and evaluation of lateral pelvic lymph nodes. The impact of these anatomic inconsistencies and sources of confusion is significant, given the importance of MRI in depicting the anatomic relationship of the tumor to critical pelvic structures, to triage surgical resection and neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy with the goal of minimizing local recurrence. Evolving treatment paradigms also place MRI central in management of rectal cancer. ©RSNA, 2024.

Sound the Alarm: The Sonographer Shortage Is Echoing Across Healthcare.

OBJECTIVES: The growth in ultrasound usage necessitates concurrent growth in the number of sonographers. Despite the increasing importance of ultrasound, there is a shortage of sonographers in the United States that has never been specifically quantified. This study examines recent trends in the number of ultrasound exams, sonography graduates, open sonographer positions, and wages. METHODS: This retrospective study uses public databases and surveys including the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS), Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), and Zippia, a human resources platform to determine metrics. These metrics include the number of ultrasound exams conducted in the United States (excluding inpatient setting), number of sonographers and sonographer wages, sonography graduates, and open sonographer positions. RESULTS: Ultrasound exams in the United States from 2011 to 2021 increased from 38.6 million to 59.8 million (+55.1%,) while the number of sonographers (2011-2021) increased from 54,760 to 78,640 (+43.6%). There was a significant difference between supply and demand of sonographers with the number of sonography graduates (2011-2021) increasing from 4,386 to 5,393 (+23.0%) while the number of open sonographer positions (2012-2021) increased from 18,462 to 25,162 (+36.3%). CONCLUSIONS: From 2011 to 2021, the increase in the number of ultrasound exams has significantly outpaced the increase in the number of sonographers. Furthermore, the increase in demand for sonographers has grown significantly faster than the supply, leading to a shortage and consequent strain on the healthcare system. To address the shortage, the number of sonography school openings should be increased, and the attendant challenges addressed.

Gamut of Extratesticular Scrotal Masses: Anatomic Approach to Sonographic Differential Diagnosis.

The commonly taught tenet that intratesticular lesions are always malignant and extratesticular scrotal lesions are always benign is a simplistic statement that erroneously minimizes the significance of extratesticular scrotal masses and their diagnosis. Yet, disease in the extratesticular space is commonly encountered by clinicians and radiologists and is often a source of uncertainty in diagnosis and management. Given the embryologically rooted complex anatomy of this region, a wide range of pathologic conditions is possible. Radiologists may not be familiar with some of these conditions; further, many of these lesions can have a specific sonographic appearance, allowing accurate diagnosis that can minimize surgical intervention. Lastly, malignancies can occur in the extratesticular space-although this is less common than in the testicles-and proper recognition of findings that warrant additional imaging or surgery is critical in optimizing outcomes. The authors present a compartmental anatomic framework for differential diagnosis of extratesticular scrotal masses and provide a comprehensive illustrative display of many of the pathologic conditions that can be encountered to familiarize radiologists with the sonographic appearances of these lesions. They also review management of these lesions and scenarios where US may not be definitive in diagnosis and selective use of scrotal MRI can be helpful. © RSNA, 2023 Quiz questions for this article are available in the supplemental material.

Management of Incidentally Detected Gallbladder Polyps: Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference Recommendations.

Gallbladder polyps (also known as polypoid lesions of the gallbladder) are a common incidental finding. The vast majority of gallbladder polyps smaller than 10 mm are not true neoplastic polyps but are benign cholesterol polyps with no inherent risk of malignancy. In addition, recent studies have shown that the overall risk of gallbladder cancer is not increased in patients with small gallbladder polyps, calling into question the rationale for frequent and prolonged follow-up of these common lesions. In 2021, a Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound, or SRU, consensus conference was convened to provide recommendations for the management of incidentally detected gallbladder polyps at US. See also the editorial by Sidhu and Rafailidis in this issue.

Pancreatic Cystic Lesions and Malignancy: Assessment, Guidelines, and the Field Defect.

The widespread use of high-spatial-resolution cross-sectional imaging has led to an increase in detection of incidental pancreatic cystic lesions. These lesions are a diverse group, ranging from indolent and premalignant lesions to invasive cancers. The diagnosis of several of these lesions can be suggested on the basis of their imaging appearance, while many other lesions require follow-up imaging and/or aspiration. The smaller cystic lesions, often branch-duct intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms, have overlapping imaging characteristics that make diagnostic assessment of the natural history and malignancy risk confusing. Expert panels have developed societal guidelines, based on a consensus, for surveillance of these lesions. However, these guidelines are often inconsistent and are constantly evolving as additional scientific data are accumulated. Identification of features associated with increased risk of malignancy is important for proper management. The concept of field defect, whereby pancreatic adenocarcinoma develops at a site different from the site of the pancreatic cyst, adds to the complexity of screening guidelines. As a result of the differences in guidelines, key stakeholders (eg, radiologists, gastroenterologists, and surgeons) must review and come to a consensus regarding which guideline, or combination of guidelines, to follow at their individual institutions. Standardized reporting and macros are helpful for ensuring the uniformity of interpretations. Radiologists play a critical role in the detection and characterization of pancreatic cystic lesions, in the follow-up recommendations for these lesions, and in the detection of associated cancer. An invited commentary by Zaheer is available online. Online supplemental material is available for this article. ©RSNA, 2021.

Association of CT findings in patients with hemoperitoneum due to ruptured ovarian cysts with subsequent intervention.

PURPOSE: Hemoperitoneum caused by ovarian cyst rupture may necessitate intervention. The literature is lacking in descriptions of CT findings that help guide patient management. The purpose of this study is to consider CT findings associated with a need for intervention (surgical or interventional radiology management) versus conservative treatment (observation, pain management, and blood transfusions). METHODS: Two radiologists retrospectively and independently reviewed 103 CTs of pre-menopausal women who presented with acute hemoperitoneum related to ruptured ovarian cysts between January 2010 and January 2019. The following imaging features were assessed: ovarian cyst characteristics, sentinel clot, contrast extravasation, and hemoperitoneum size. Findings were correlated with patient demographics, clinical parameters, and management with surgery/interventional radiology procedure (intervention group) versus conservative management (conservative group). RESULTS: Of the 103 patients with hemoperitoneum from cyst rupture, 16% (n = 16) required intervention, and 84% underwent conservative treatment (n = 87). Length of stay (p = .008) was higher in the intervention group. Statistically significant CT findings in the intervention versus conservative group included (p-value reader 1/p-value reader 2) greatest AP dimension of hemoperitoneum (p = .001/p = 0.02), posterior cul-de-sac AP dimension (p = 0.03/p = .006), total cul-de-sac AP dimension (p = .002/p = .007), and number of spaces with hemoperitoneum (p = .01/p = .02). There was good to excellent inter-reader agreement for these findings (ICC 0.68-0.91). Active contrast extravasation was significant for one reader (p = .02) with poor inter-reader agreement (ICC 0.36). In utilizing ROC curves, thresholds of 107 mm (greatest axial AP dimension of hemoperitoneum) yielded a sensitivity and specificity of 0.81 and 0.62 for reader 1 and 0.69 and 0.55 for reader 2; 45 mm (posterior cul-de-sac AP dimension) yielded a sensitivity and specificity of 0.75 and 0.63 for reader 1 and 0.94 and 0.49 for reader 2; 70 mm (total cul-de-sac AP dimension) yielded a sensitivity and specificity of 0.75 and 0.64 for reader 1 and 0.75 and 0.50 for reader 2; and greater than 5 spaces yielded a sensitivity and specificity of 0.75 and 0.58 for reader 1 and 0.69 and 0.70 for reader 2. CONCLUSION: CT findings associated with intervention in hemoperitoneum due to ovarian cyst rupture include size of hemoperitoneum, number of abdominopelvic spaces with hemoperitoneum, and contrast extravasation.

MRI Staging in an Evolving Management Paradigm for Rectal Cancer, From the AJR Special Series on Cancer Staging.

The treatment of rectal cancer centers around the distinct but related goals of management of distant metastases and management of local disease. Optimal local management requires attention to the primary tumor and its anatomic relationship to surrounding pelvic structures, with the goal of minimizing local recurrence (LR). High-resolution MRI is ideally suited for this purpose; application of MRI-based criteria in conjunction with optimized surgical and pathologic techniques has successfully reduced LR rates. This success has led to a shift away from using the TNM-based National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines as the sole determinant of whether a patient receives neoadjuvant chemoradiation. The new model uses a hybrid approach for assigning risk categories that combines elements of the TNM staging system with MRI-based anatomic features. These risk categories incorporate tumor proximity to the circumferential resection margin, T category, distance to the anal verge, and presence of extramural venous invasion to classify rectal tumors as low, intermediate, or high risk. This approach has been validated by accumulated data from numerous multiinstitutional studies. This article illustrates key anatomic concepts, depicts common interpretive errors and pitfalls, and discusses ongoing limitations; these insights should guide radiologists in optimal rectal MRI interpretation.

Role of US LI-RADS in the LI-RADS Algorithm.

The US Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System (LI-RADS) was released in 2017 and is the newest of the four American College of Radiology (ACR) LI-RADS algorithms. US LI-RADS provides standardized terminology, technical recommendations, and a reporting framework for US examinations performed for screening or surveillance in patients at risk for developing hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The appropriate patient population for screening and surveillance includes individuals who are at risk for developing HCC but do not have known or suspected cancer. This includes patients with cirrhosis from any cause and subsets of patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection in the absence of cirrhosis. In an HCC screening or surveillance study, US LI-RADS recommends assigning two scores that apply to the entire study: the US category, which determines follow-up, and a visualization score, which communicates the expected level of sensitivity of the examination but does not affect management. Three US categories are possible: US-1 negative, a study with no evidence of HCC; US-2 subthreshold, a study in which an observation less than 10 mm is depicted that is not definitely benign; and US-3 positive, a study in which an observation greater than or equal to 10 mm or a new thrombus in vein is identified, for which diagnostic contrast material-enhanced imaging is recommended. Three visualization scores are possible: A (no or minimal limitations), B (moderate limitations), and C (severe limitations). ©RSNA, 2019.

Lesions Without Borders: Scrotal Lesions That Involve Both the Intratesticular and Extratesticular Regions.

OBJECTIVE: Differentiation of scrotal lesions is often dictated by whether they are intraor extratesticular. However, these regions are not entirely isolated, and disease processes can span both spaces. We review a variety of lesions that can involve both regions, describe the relevant anatomy, and illustrate their imaging appearances. CONCLUSION: Identification of involvement of both intra- and extratesticular regions by a single process can narrow the differential considerations and help arrive at the correct diagnosis.

Spectrum of Extratesticular and Testicular Pathologic Conditions at Scrotal MR Imaging.

Diagnostic workup of scrotal lesions should begin with a complete clinical history and physical examination, including analysis of risk factors such as family history of testicular cancer, personal history of tumor in the contralateral testis, and cryptorchidism, followed by imaging. Scrotal ultrasonography (US) with a combination of gray-scale and color Doppler techniques has been the first-line imaging modality for evaluation of testicular and extratesticular lesions because of its low cost, wide availability, and high diagnostic accuracy. However, US has limitations related to operator dependence, the relatively small field of view, and lack of tissue characterization. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, because of its superior soft-tissue contrast and multiplanar capabilities, is increasingly being used as a supplemental diagnostic problem-solving tool in cases where scrotal US findings are inconclusive or nondiagnostic. In addition to morphology, lesion location, and tissue characterization (eg, fat, blood products, granulation tissue, and fibrosis), scrotal MR imaging provides important information that can affect surgical planning and improve patient care. MR imaging also is helpful for differentiating testicular and extratesticular lesions, distinguishing between benign and malignant lesions, and evaluating the local extent of disease. This review discusses the anatomy and MR imaging features of testicular and extratesticular neoplastic and nonneoplastic conditions and describes relevant MR imaging techniques. ©RSNA, 2018 Contact information that appeared in the print version of this article was updated in the online version on May 14, 2018.

Chemical Shift MR Imaging of the Adrenal Gland: Principles, Pitfalls, and Applications.

Adrenal lesions are a common imaging finding. The vast majority of adrenal lesions are adenomas, which contain intracytoplasmic (microscopic) fat. It is important to distinguish between adenomas and malignant tumors, and chemical shift magnetic resonance (MR) imaging can be used to accomplish this distinction by depicting the fat in adenomas. Chemical shift imaging is based on the difference in precession frequencies of water and fat molecules, which causes them to be in different relative phases during the acquisition sequence and allows in-phase and opposed-phase images to be obtained. It is important to acquire these images by using the earliest possible echo times, with the opposed-phase echo before the in-phase echo, and by using a single breath hold to preserve diagnostic accuracy. Intracytoplasmic fat is depicted as signal drop on opposed-phase images when compared with in-phase images. Both qualitative and quantitative methods for assessing signal drop are detailed. The appearances of adrenal adenomas and other adrenal tumors on chemical shift MR images are described, and discriminatory ability at chemical shift MR imaging compared with that at adrenal computed tomography (CT) is explained. Other adrenal-related conditions in which chemical shift MR imaging is helpful are also discussed. Chemical shift MR imaging is a robust tool for evaluating adrenal lesions that are indeterminate at nonenhanced CT. However, it is important to know the advantages and disadvantages, including several potential imaging pitfalls. The characterization of adrenal lesions by using chemical shift MR imaging and adrenal CT should always occur in the appropriate clinical setting.

When Timing Is Everything: Are Placental MRI Examinations Performed Before 24 Weeks' Gestational Age Reliable?

OBJECTIVE: The objective of our study was to determine if placental MRI examinations performed for the detection of abnormal placentation earlier than 24 weeks' gestational age (GA) are more or less reliable than examinations performed at a later GA. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two radiologists blinded to clinical, surgical, and pathologic reports retrospectively and independently reviewed 69 placental MRI examinations for nine imaging signs associated with abnormal placentation. A consensus of the suspicion of abnormal placentation (including accreta, increta, or percreta) was determined using a 5-point (low to high suspicion) Likert scale and compared with pathologic or surgical findings or both. RESULTS: Seventeen placental MRI examinations were performed at GA 14-23 weeks, and 52 placental MRI examinations were performed at GA 24-41 weeks. Reviewer agreement (Cronbach alpha) among the nine imaging signs was 0.86 (95% CI, 0.72-0.92) and 0.92 (95% CI, 0.92-0.94) for MRI examinations at GA 14-23 weeks and GA 24-41 weeks, respectively. Pathologic or surgical evidence of abnormal placentation was found in 41% and 65% of the cases between GA 14-23 weeks and GA 24-41 weeks, respectively. The AUC for the MRI-based consensus score and the presence of abnormal placentation for GA 14-23 weeks was 0.49 (95% CI, 0.21-0.78) compared with 0.92 (95% CI, 0.83-1.0) for GA 24-41 weeks (p = 0.002). CONCLUSION: Placental MRI examinations performed before 24 weeks' GA unreliably predict abnormal placentation.

Management of incidentally detected gallbladder polyps: a review of clinical scenarios using the 2022 SRU gallbladder polyp consensus guidelines.

Gallbladder (GB) polyps are a common incidental finding on sonography, but only a small fraction of polyps become GB cancer. The Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound (SRU) consensus committee recently performed an extensive literature review and published guidelines for GB polyp follow-up/management to provide clarity among the many heterogeneous recommendations that are available to clinicians. As these guidelines have become adopted into clinical practice, challenging clinical scenarios have arisen including GB polyps in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), high risk geographic/genetic patient populations, shrinking polyps, pedunculated vs sessile polyps, thin vs thick stalked polyps, vascular polyps and multiple polyps. According to the SRU guidelines, clinicians should refer to gastroenterology guidelines when managing GB polyps in patients with known PSC. If patients at high geographic/genetic risk develop GB polyps, 'extremely low risk' polyps may be managed as 'low risk' and 10-14 mm 'extremely low risk' or '7-14 mm' low risk polyps that decrease in size by ≥ 4 mm require no follow-up. Thin-stalked or pedunculated polyps are 'extremely low risk' and thick-stalked pedunculated polyps are 'low risk'. Sessile polyps are 'low risk' but should receive immediate specialist referral if features suggestive of GB cancer are present. Neither polyp multiplicity nor vascularity impact risk of GB cancer and follow up should be based on morphology alone.

Ultrasound Workflow in a Pandemic: Lessons Learned from COVID-19.

The 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has posed unique, sudden challenges to health care systems. This is true particularly in the context of ultrasound logistics given the risks of inherent prolonged close contact of patients with sonographers and equipment during sonographic image acquisition. We describe the adaptations and modifications in scheduling, workflow, and imaging protocols implemented in our radiology department ultrasound division (a large urban academic center). The hierarchy of controls to minimize exposures to occupational hazards to protect workers, outlined by The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) are listed from most effective to least effective: elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls, and PPE (personal protective equipment (PPE)). Most of the mitigation techniques used in the ultrasound department to reduce hazards to workers involved administrative controls and PPE. We reduced preventable risks by using sterile precautions, imaging triage, and strategically minimizing image acquisition times. These implementations provide a modifiable framework for rapid adaptation during the evolving COVID-19 pandemic, including resurgences of variant strains. This framework ensures a level of preparedness for possible future pandemics or other widespread emergencies.

Survey Study on the Experience, Practice Patterns, and Preferences of the Fellows of the Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound for Evaluation and Management of Gallbladder Polyps Detected With Ultrasound.

ABSTRACT: Gallbladder polyps (GPs) are a common incidental finding on ultrasound; however, important differences in recommended management exist among professional society guidelines.An electronic survey was sent to 189 fellows of the Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound. Main outcomes included preferences and current practice patterns for evaluation, management, and surveillance of GPs as well as personal lifetime experience with gallbladder sonography and GPs.A total of 64 subjects (34%) with experience in gallbladder sonography completed the study. The estimated combined total number of gallbladder scans seen by the responders was 3,071,880. None of fellows had ever seen a pedunculated GP <1 cm detected on ultrasound that was proven to be malignant at the time of detection or during subsequent follow-up. All of the fellows used size as a feature to stratify recommendations. The median size threshold currently used by Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound fellows for recommending ultrasound follow-up was 6 mm, and their preferred threshold was 7 mm. The median size threshold for recommending surgical consultation was 10 mm, and the preferred threshold was 10 mm. Wall thickening and shape were considered important factors by 76% and 67% of respondents, respectively.Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound fellows tend to provide recommendations most similar to the American College of Radiology and Canadian Association of Radiology guidelines for management of GPs. Many would prefer guidelines that result in fewer recommendations for follow-up and surgical consultation. Despite a substantial combined experience, this survey did not uncover any case of a small GP that was malignant.

Utilizing CT to identify clinically significant biliary dilatation in symptomatic post-cholecystectomy patients: when should we be worried?

PURPOSE: To determine a reliable threshold common duct diameter on CT, in combination with other ancillary CT and clinical parameters, at which the likelihood of pathology requiring further imaging or intervention is increased in post-cholecystectomy patients. METHODS: In this IRB approved retrospective study, two attending radiologists independently reviewed CT imaging for 118 post-cholecystectomy patients, who were subsequently evaluated with MRCP, ERCP, or EUS, prompted by findings on the CT and clinical status. Measurements of the common duct (CD) were obtained at the porta hepatis, distal duct, and point of maximal dilation on axial and coronal CT scans. Patients were grouped by whether they required intervention after follow-up imaging. Pertinent baseline lab values and patient demographics were reviewed. RESULTS: Of the 118 post-cholecystectomy patients, 38 patients (31%) required intervention, and 80 patients (69%) did not require intervention after follow-up imaging. For both readers, axial and coronal CD diameters were significantly higher in the 'intervention required' vs 'no intervention' groups at all locations (p value < 0.05). There was good to excellent inter-reader agreement at all locations (ICC 0.68-0.92). Pertinent baseline lab values including AST (p = 0.043), ALT (p = 0.001), alkaline phosphatase (p = 0.0001), direct bilirubin (p = 0.011), total bilirubin (p = 0.028), and WBC (p = 0.043) were significantly higher in the 'intervention required' group. CD thresholds of 8 mm yielded the highest sensitivities (76-95%), and CD thresholds of 12 mm yielded the highest specificities (65-78%). CD combined with bilirubin levels increased sensitivity and specificity, compared to using either feature alone. CONCLUSION: Dilated CD on CT combined with bilirubin levels increases the sensitivity and specificity for identifying patients needing intervention. We recommend that a post-cholecystectomy patient who presents with a CD diameter > 10 mm on CT and elevated bilirubin levels should undergo further clinical and imaging follow-up.

Subcentimeter thyroid nodules: utility of sonographic characterization and ultrasound-guided needle biopsy.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to examine subcentimeter thyroid nodules to determine their rate of malignancy, the accuracy of various ultrasound features in prediction of malignancy, and the utility of ultrasound-guided biopsy of these nodules. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Included in this retrospective study were 104 patients in whom 108 thyroid nodules smaller than 1 cm had been biopsied. Diagnostic ultrasound examinations were reviewed, and nodules were evaluated for the following ultrasound features: internal echogenicity, margins, height-to-width ratio, presence of calcifications, posterior acoustic features, solid-to-cystic ratio, presence of a halo, and color Doppler characteristics. In addition, a subjective assessment of level of suspicion was assigned to each nodule. Each feature was correlated with the pathologic results to determine the accuracy of the feature for predicting malignancy. RESULTS: Adequate cytologic specimens were obtained in 97 of the 108 subcentimeter biopsies (90%) performed. The average size of malignant nodules was significantly smaller than the average size of benign nodules (6.4 ± 2.1 vs 7.7 ± 1.4 mm, p = 0.041). The rate of carcinoma among nodules with a final diagnosis was 19% (16/85). The most accurate features significantly associated with malignancy were posterior acoustic shadowing (87%), many diffuse calcifications (82%), rim calcifications (81%), and taller than wide shape (79%). The subjective level of suspicion correlated well with the presence of malignancy (76%). CONCLUSION: Subcentimeter nodules are significantly associated with the risk of malignancy and can be accurately and safely biopsied with a very high diagnostic rate. Certain ultrasound features can be used to accurately stratify risk of malignancy, although no single feature replaces the clinician's overall impression.

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in HCC diagnosis and assessment of tumor response to locoregional therapies.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a global problem constituting the second leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide, thereby necessitating an accurate and cost-effective solution for managing care. Ultrasound is well poised to address this need due to its low cost, portability, safety, and excellent temporal resolution. The role of ultrasound for HCC screening has been well established and supported by multiple international guidelines. Similarly, contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) can be used for the characterization of focal liver lesions in high-risk populations, and standardized criteria for CEUS have been established by the American College of Radiology Liver Imaging Reporting & Data System (LI-RADS). Following HCC identification, CEUS can also be highly beneficial in treatment planning, delivery, and monitoring HCC response to locoregional therapies. Specific advantages of CEUS include providing real-time treatment guidance and improved diagnostic performance for the detection of residual tumor viability or recurrence, thereby identifying patients in need of retreatment substantially earlier than contrast-enhanced CT and MRI. This review provides a primer on ultrasound and CEUS for the screening and characterization of HCC, with an emphasis on assessing tumor response to locoregional therapies.