Stabilization of DPPC lipid bilayers in the presence of co-solutes: molecular mechanisms and interaction patterns.

We study the interactions between dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) lipid bilayers in the gel and the fluid phase with ectoine, amino ectoine and water molecules by means of atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and conceptual density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Our results reveal a pronounced preferential exclusion of both co-solutes from the DPPC lipid bilayer which is stronger for the fluid phase. The corresponding outcomes can be brought into relation with the Kirkwood-Buff theory of solutions in order to provide a thermodynamic rationale for the experimentally observed stabilization of the gel phase. Closely related to preferential exclusion of both co-solutes, our simulations also highlight a preferential hydration behavior as manifested by an increased number of hydrogen bonds between water and DPPC molecules. All results are rationalized by conceptual DFT calculations with regard to differences in the electronic properties between ectoine and amino ectoine.

An Imidazolium-Based Lipid Analogue as a Gene Transfer Agent.

A dicationic imidazolium salt is described and investigated towards its application for gene transfer. The polar head group and the long alkyl chains in the backbone contribute to a lipid-like behavior, while an alkyl ammonium group provides the ability for crucial electrostatic interaction for the transfection process. Detailed biophysical studies regarding its impact on biological membrane models and the propensity of vesicle fusion are presented. Fluorescence spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and confocal fluorescence microscopy show that the imidazolium salt leads to negligible changes in lipid packing, while displaying distinct vesicle fusion properties. Cell culture experiments reveal that mixed liposomes containing the novel imidazolium salt can serve as plasmid DNA delivery vehicles. In contrast, a structurally similar imidazolium salt without a second positive charge showed no ability to support DNA transfection into cultured cells. Thus, we introduce a novel and variable structural motif for cationic lipids, expanding the field of lipofection agents.

Interaction of imidazolium-based lipids with phospholipid bilayer membranes of different complexity.

In recent years, alkylated imidazolium salts have been shown to affect lipid membranes and exhibit general cytotoxicity as well as significant anti-tumor activity. Here, we examined the interactions of a sterically demanding, biophysically unexplored imidazolium salt, 1,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-4,5-diundecylimidazolium bromide (C11IPr), on the physico-chemical properties of various model biomembrane systems. The results are compared with those for the smaller headgroup variant 1,3-dimethyl-4,5-diundecylimidazolium iodide (C11IMe). We studied the influence of these two lipid-based imidazolium salts at concentrations from 1 to about 10 mol% on model biomembrane systems of different complexity, including anionic heterogeneous raft membranes which are closer to natural membranes. Fluorescence spectroscopic, DSC, surface potential and FTIR measurements were carried out to reveal changes in membrane thermotropic phase behavior, lipid conformational order, fluidity and headgroup charge. Complementary AFM and confocal fluorescence microscopy measurements allowed us to detect changes in the lateral organization and membrane morphology. Both lipidated imidazolium salts increase the membrane fluidity and lead to a deterioration of the lateral domain structure of the membrane, in particular for C11IPr owing to its bulkier headgroup. Moreover, partitioning of the lipidated imidazolium salts into the lipid vesicles leads to marked changes in lateral organization, curvature and morphology of the lipid vesicles at high concentrations, with C11IPr having a more pronounced effect than C11IMe. Hence, these compounds seem to be vastly suitable for biochemical and biotechnological engineering, with high potentials for antimicrobial activity, drug delivery and gene transfer.

3D Molecular ToF-SIMS Imaging of Artificial Lipid Membranes Using a Discriminant Analysis-Based Algorithm.

Artificial lipid membranes play a growing role in technical applications such as biosensors in pharmacological research and as model systems in the investigation of biological lipid films. In the standard procedure for displaying the distribution of membrane components, fluorescence microscopy, the fluorophores used can influence the distribution of the components and usually not all substances can be displayed at the same time. The discriminant analysis-based algorithm used in combination with scanning time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) enables marker-free, quantitative, simultaneous recording of all membrane components. These data are used for reconstruction of distribution patterns. In the model system used for this survey, a tear fluid lipid layer, the distribution patterns of all lipids correlate well in calculated ToF-SIMS images and epi-fluorescence microscopic images. All epi-fluorescence microscopically viewable structures are visible when using both positive and negative secondary ions and can be reproduced with high lateral resolution in the submicrometer range despite the very low signal intensity and a very low signal-to-noise ratio. In addition, three-dimensional images can be obtained with a subnanometer depth resolution. Furthermore, structures and the distribution of substances that cannot be made visible by epi-fluorescence microscopy can be displayed. This enables new insights that cannot be gained by epi-fluorescence microscopy alone.

Influence of the Headgroup of Azolium-Based Lipids on Their Biophysical Properties and Cytotoxicity.

A series of (un-)charged NHC derivatives bearing two pentadecyl chains in the backbone was studied in detail to find cooperative effects between the membrane and the NHC derivative. The tendency to show lipid-like behavior is dependent on the properties of the NHC derivative headgroup, which can be modified on demand. The surface activity was investigated by film balance measurements, epifluorescence microscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry. Additionally the cytotoxicity was evaluated against different cell lines such as eukaryotic tumor cell lines. These novel lipid-like NHC derivatives offer a broad spectrum for biological applications.

Imidazolium Salts Mimicking the Structure of Natural Lipids Exploit Remarkable Properties Forming Lamellar Phases and Giant Vesicles.

Tailor-made ionic liquids based on imidazolium salts have recently attracted a large amount of attention because of their extraordinary properties and versatile functionality. An intriguing ability to interact with and stabilize membranes has already been reported for 1,3-dialkylimidazolium compounds. We now reveal further insights into the field by investigating 1,3-dimethyl-4,5-dialkylimidazolium (Cn-IMe·HI, n = 7, 11, 15) and 1,3-dibenzyl-4,5-dialkylimidazolium (Cn-IBn·HBr, n = 7, 11, 15) salts. Diverse alkyl chain lengths and headgroups differing in their steric demand were employed for the membrane interface interaction with bilayer membranes imitating the cellular plasma membrane. Membrane hydration properties and domain fluidization were analyzed by fluorescent bilayer probes in direct comparison to established model membranes in a buffered aqueous environment, which resembles the salt content and pH of the cytosol of living cells. Membrane binding and insertion was analyzed via a quartz crystal microbalance and confocal laser scanning microscopy. We show that short-chain 4,5-dialkylimidazolium salts with a bulky headgroup were able to disintegrate membranes. Long-chain imidazolium salts form bilayer membrane vesicles spontaneously and autonomously without the addition of other lipids. These 4,5-dialkylimidazolium salts are highly eligible for further biochemical engineering and drug delivery.

Towards quantification of toxicity of lithium ion battery electrolytes - development and validation of a liquid-liquid extraction GC-MS method for the determination of organic carbonates in cell culture materials.

A novel method based on liquid-liquid extraction with subsequent gas chromatography separation and mass spectrometric detection (GC-MS) for the quantification of organic carbonates in cell culture materials is presented. Method parameters including the choice of extraction solvent, of extraction method and of extraction time were optimised and the method was validated. The setup allowed for determination within a linear range of more than two orders of magnitude. The limits of detection (LODs) were between 0.0002 and 0.002 mmol/L and the repeatability precisions were in the range of 1.5-12.9%. It could be shown that no matrix effects were present and recovery rates between 98 and 104% were achieved. The methodology was applied to cell culture models incubated with commercial lithium ion battery (LIB) electrolytes to gain more insight into the potential toxic effects of these compounds. The stability of the organic carbonates in cell culture medium after incubation was studied. In a porcine model of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier, it could be shown that a transfer of organic carbonates into the brain facing compartment took place. Graphical abstract Schematic setup for the investigation of toxicity of lithium ion battery electrolytes.

The effects of gold nanoparticles functionalized with ß-amyloid specific peptides on an in vitro model of blood-brain barrier.

We studied the effect of gold nanoparticle (AuNP) size, surface charge, concentration and morphology on the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in a well-established in vitro model set-up. We focused on the effect of peptide functionalized hollow gold nanospheres and gold nanorods, which selectively bind to amyloidogenic ß-amyloid structures. These AuNP conjugates have already been successfully tested as photothermal absorbers for potential application in Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapy in an in vitro set-up, but may exhibit a low passage through the BBB due to their overall negative charge. Our results show that: (i) small (1.4 nm) AuNPs strongly affects the BBB integrity, (ii) negative surface charge impedes BBB passage, and (iii) this charge effect caused by the peptide is compensated by covalent coupling to a polyethylene glycol ligand stabilizing the particles in diluted manner.

Blood-brain barrier properties in vitro depend on composition and assembly of endogenous extracellular matrices.

Brain capillary endothelial cells, which constitute the blood-brain barrier (BBB), are enveloped by the extracellular matrix (ECM) produced by endothelial cells, pericytes and astrocytes. The contribution of matrix components secreted by the various cell types at the neurovascular unit, however, remains unclear with respect to their effect on endothelial barrier function. In this study, a new in vitro model was established by growing endothelial cells on an ECM produced by pericytes, astrocytes or a serial combination of both. The last-mentioned was found to be more in vivo-like. We investigated the role of the composition and morphology of ECM supra-structures in maintaining BBB function. The composition was analysed by protein analysis (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) and the ultrastructure of generated matrices was analysed by transmission electron microscopy including immunogold labelling. We could show by electric cell-substrate impedance sensing measurements that pericytes and combined matrices significantly improved the barrier tightness of porcine brain capillary endothelial cells (PBCEC). The increase of the resistance was verified by enhanced expression of tight junction proteins. Thus, for the first time, we have shown that barrier integrity is strictly controlled by the ECM, which is a product of all cells involved in the secretion of ECM components and their modification by corresponding cells. Moreover, we have demonstrated that complex matrices by the various cells of the BBB induce barrier marker enzymes in PBCEC, such as alkaline phosphatase.

Imidazolium-Based Lipid Analogues and Their Interaction with Phosphatidylcholine Membranes.

4,5-Dialkylated imidazolium lipid salts are a new class of lipid analogues showing distinct biological activities. The potential effects of the imidazolium lipids on artificial lipid membranes and the corresponding membrane interactions was analyzed. Therefore, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) was employed to create an established lipid monolayer model and a bilayer membrane. Mixed monolayers of DPPC and 4,5-dialkylimidazolium lipids differing by their alkyl chain length (C7, C11, and C15) were characterized by surface pressure-area (π-A) isotherms using a Wilhelmy film balance in combination with epifluorescence microscopy. Monolayer hysteresis for binary mixtures was examined by recording triplicate consecutive compression-expansion cycles. The lipid miscibility and membrane stability of DPPC/imidazolium lipids were subsequently evaluated by the excess mean molecular area (ΔAex) and the excess Gibbs free energy (ΔGex) of mixing. Furthermore, the thermotropic behavior of mixed liposomes of DPPC/imidazolium lipids was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The C15-imidazolium lipid (C15-IMe·HI) forms a thermodynamically favored and kinetically reversible Langmuir monolayer with DPPC and exhibits a rigidification effect on both DPPC monolayer and bilayer structures at low molar fractions (X ≤ 0.3). However, the incorporation of the C11-imidazolium lipid (C11-IMe·HI) causes the formation of an unstable and irreversible Langmuir-Gibbs monolayer with DPPC and disordered DPPC liposomes. The C7-imidazolium lipid (C7-IMe·HI) displays negligible membrane activity. To better understand these results on a molecular level, all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed. The simulations yield two opposing molecular mechanisms governing the different behavior of the three imidazolium lipids: a lateral ordering effect and a free volume/stretching effect. Overall, our study provides the first evidence that the membrane interaction of the C15 and C11 derivatives modulates the structural organization of lipid membranes. On the contrary, for the C7 derivative its membrane activity is too low to contribute to its earlier reported potent cytotoxicity.

Comparison of five peptide vectors for improved brain delivery of the lysosomal enzyme arylsulfatase A.

Enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) is a treatment option for lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) caused by deficiencies of soluble lysosomal enzymes. ERT depends on receptor-mediated transport of intravenously injected recombinant enzyme to lysosomes of patient cells. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents efficient transfer of therapeutic polypeptides from the blood to the brain parenchyma and thus hinders effective treatment of LSDs with CNS involvement. We compared the potential of five brain-targeting peptides to promote brain delivery of the lysosomal enzyme arylsulfatase A (ASA). Fusion proteins between ASA and the protein transduction domain of the human immunodeficiency virus TAT protein (Tat), an Angiopep peptide (Ang-2), and the receptor-binding domains of human apolipoprotein B (ApoB) and ApoE (two versions, ApoE-I and ApoE-II) were generated. All ASA fusion proteins were enzymatically active and targeted to lysosomes when added to cultured cells. In contrast to wild-type ASA, which is taken up by mannose-6-phosphate receptors, all chimeric proteins were additionally endocytosed via mannose-6-phosphate-independent routes. For ASA-Ang-2, ASA-ApoE-I, and ASA-ApoE-II, uptake was partially due to the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1. Transendothelial transfer in a BBB cell culture model was elevated for ASA-ApoB, ASA-ApoE-I, and ASA-ApoE-II. Brain delivery was, however, increased only for ASA-ApoE-II. ApoE-II was also superior to wild-type ASA in reducing lysosomal storage in the CNS of ASA-knock-out mice treated by ERT. Therefore, the ApoE-derived peptide appears useful to treat metachromatic leukodystrophy and possibly other neurological disorders more efficiently.

Biophysical investigations of the structure and function of the tear fluid lipid layers and the effect of ectoine. Part B: artificial lipid films.

The tear fluid lipid layer is present at the outermost part of the tear film which lines the ocular surface and functions to maintain the corneal surface moist by retarding evaporation. Instability in the structure of the tear fluid lipid layer can cause an increased rate of evaporation and thus dry eye syndrome. Ectoine has been previously shown to fluidize lipid monolayers and alter the phase behavior. In the current study we have investigated the effect of ectoine on the artificial tear fluid lipid layer composed of binary and ternary lipid mixtures of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC), cholesteryl esters and tri-acyl-glycerols. The focus of our study was mainly the structural and the biophysical aspects of the artificial tear fluid lipid layer using surface activity studies and topology analysis. The presence of ectoine consistently causes an expansion of the pressure-area isotherm indicating increased intermolecular spacing. The topology studies showed the formation of droplet-like structures due to the addition of ectoine only when tri-acyl-glycerol is present in the mixture of DPPC and chol-palmitate, similar to the natural meibomian lipids. Consequently, the hypothesis of an exclusion of tri/di-acyl-glycerol from the meibomian lipid film in the presence of ectoine in the subphase is confirmed. A model describing the effect of ectoine on meibomian lipid films is further presented which may have an application for the use of ectoines in eye drops as a treatment for the dry eye syndrome.

Biophysical investigations of the structure and function of the tear fluid lipid layer and the effect of ectoine. Part A: natural meibomian lipid films.

The tear fluid lipid layer is the outermost part of the tear film on the ocular surface which protects the eye from inflammations and injuries. We investigated the influence of ectoine on the structural organization of natural meibomian lipid films using surface activity analysis and topographical studies. These films exhibit a continuous pressure-area isotherm without any phase transition. With the addition of ectoine, the isotherm is expanded towards higher area per molecule values suggesting an increased area occupied by the interfacial lipid molecules. The AFM topology scans of natural meibomian lipid films reveal a presence of fiber-like structures. The addition of ectoine causes an appearance of droplet-like structures which are hypothesized to be tri-acyl-glycerols and other hydrophobic components excluded from the lipid film. Further the material properties of the droplet-like structure with respect to the surrounding were determined by using the quantitative imaging mode of the AFM technique. The droplet-like structures were found to be comparatively softer than the surrounding. Based on the observations a preliminary hypothesis is proposed explaining the mechanism of action of ectoine leading to the fluidization of meibomian lipid films. This suggests the possibility of ectoine as a treatment for the dry eye syndrome.

Anti-tumor activity and cytotoxicity in vitro of novel 4,5-dialkylimidazolium surfactants.

Natural monoalkylated imidazolium derivatives exhibit significant anti-tumor activity as well as general cytotoxicity. In the present study, we used a series of newly synthesized imidazolium derivatives bearing two alkyl chains in the backbone of the imidazolium core in 4- and 5-position and either dimethyl- or dibenzyl-substituents at 1- and 3-position. Their anti-tumor activity and cytotoxicity were determined in vitro using the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay. The tumor cell line C6 from rat glioma, the non-tumor MDCK cell line (Madin-Darby canine kidney) as well as the mouse embryonic fibroblast cell line (NIH3T3) were used as cellular targets. Surface activity measurements were performed leading to the determination of their critical micelle concentration (CMC) of these new lipid analogues to evaluate the molecular mechanism of the observed cellular effects. We found that 4,5-dialkylation of the imidazole ring enhances the anti-tumor activity compared to simple 1-alkylated imidazoles. The corresponding C7 homologues are found to be the most potent compounds. Furthermore dibenzyl-substituted imidazolium surfactants exhibit higher surface activity and increased toxicity against tumor cells compared to dimethyl-substituted imidazolium surfactants. In summary the dibenzyl-derivative carrying the two C7 chains was found to exhibit a drastically increased anti-tumor activity especially compared to so far known monoalkylated species.

A Remarkably Simple Hybrid Surfactant-NHC Ligand, Its Gold-Complex, and Application in Micellar Catalysis.

A combination of an N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligand and a structurally simple surfactant has been realized, the hybrid surfactant-NHC. The related gold complex was synthesized, fully characterized, and applied in catalysis. This remarkably simple strategy allows, in combination with a co-surfactant, the application of gold catalysis in water.

A Remarkably Simple Class of Imidazolium-Based Lipids and Their Biological Properties.

A series of imidazolium salts bearing two alkyl chains in the backbone of the imidazolium core were synthesized, resembling the structure of lipids. Their antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity were evaluated using Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and eukaryotic cell lines including tumor cells. It is shown that the length of alkyl chains in the backbone is vital for the antibiofilm activities of these lipid-mimicking components. In addition to their biological activity, their surface activity and their membrane interactions are shown by film balance and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) measurements. The structure-activity relationship indicates that the distinctive chemical structure contributes considerably to the biological activities of this novel class of lipids.

pH response and molecular recognition in a low molecular weight peptide hydrogel.

In this article we report the preparation and characterization of a peptide-based hydrogel, which possesses characteristic rheological properties, is pH responsive and can be functionalized at its thiol function. The tripeptide N-(fluorenyl-9-methoxycarbonyl)-L-Cys(acetamidomethyl)-L-His-L-Cys-OH 1 forms stable supramolecular aggregates in water leading to hydrogels above 1.5 wt%. Rheological analysis of the hydrogel revealed visco-elastic and shear thinning properties of samples containing 1.5 wt% of peptide 1. The hydrogel reversibly responds to pH changes. Below and above pH 6, electrostatic repulsion of the peptide results in a weakening of the three-dimensional gel network. Based on atomic force microscopy, small angle X-ray scattering and molecular dynamics simulations, it is proposed that the peptide assembles into nanostructures that tend to entangle at higher concentrations in water. The development of functional materials based on the peptide assemblies was possible via thiol-ene-click chemistry of the free thiol function at the C-terminal cysteine unit. As a proof of concept, the functionalization with adamantyl units to give 1-Ad was shown by molecular recognition of ß-cyclodextrin vesicles. These vesicles were used as supramolecular cross-linkers of the assemblies of peptide 1 mixed with peptide 1-Ad leading to gel networks at a reduced peptide concentration.

Cooperative binding of annexin A2 to cholesterol- and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate-containing bilayers.

Biological membranes are organized into dynamic microdomains that serve as sites for signal transduction and membrane trafficking. The formation and expansion of these microdomains are driven by intrinsic properties of membrane lipids and integral as well as membrane-associated proteins. Annexin A2 (AnxA2) is a peripherally associated membrane protein that can support microdomain formation in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner and has been implicated in membrane transport processes. Here, we performed a quantitative analysis of the binding of AnxA2 to solid supported membranes containing the annexin binding lipids phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate and phosphatidylserine in different compositions. We show that the binding is of high specificity and affinity with dissociation constants ranging between 22.1 and 32.2 nM. We also analyzed binding parameters of a heterotetrameric complex of AnxA2 with its S100A10 protein ligand and show that this complex has a higher affinity for the same membranes with Kd values of 12 to 16.4 nM. Interestingly, binding of the monomeric AnxA2 and the AnxA2-S100A10 complex are characterized by positive cooperativity. This cooperative binding is mediated by the conserved C-terminal annexin core domain of the protein and requires the presence of cholesterol. Together our results reveal for the first time, to our knowledge, that AnxA2 and its derivatives bind cooperatively to membranes containing cholesterol, phosphatidylserine, and/or phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate, thus providing a mechanistic model for the lipid clustering activity of AnxA2.

Size influences the effect of hydrophobic nanoparticles on lung surfactant model systems.

The alveolar lung surfactant (LS) is a complex lipid protein mixture that forms an interfacial monolayer reducing the surface tension to near zero values and thus preventing the lungs from collapse. Due to the expanding field of nanotechnology and the corresponding unavoidable exposure of human beings from the air, it is crucial to study the potential effects of nanoparticles (NPs) on the structural organization of the lung surfactant system. In the present study, we investigated both, the domain structure in pure DPPC monolayers as well as in lung surfactant model systems. In the pure lipid system we found that two different sized hydrophobic polymeric nanoparticles with diameter of ~12 nm and ~136 nm have contrasting effect on the functional and structural behavior. The small nanoparticles inserted into fluid domains at the LE-LC phase transition are not visibly disturbing the phase transition but disrupting the domain morphology of the LE phase. The large nanoparticles led to an expanded isotherm and to a significant decrease in the line tension and thus to a drastic disruption of the domain structures at a much lower number of nanoparticles with respect to the lipid. The surface activity of the model LS films again showed drastic variations due to presence of different sized NPs illustrated by the film balance isotherms and the atomic force microscopy. AFM revealed laterally profuse multilayer protrusion formation on compression but only in the presence of 136 nm sized nanoparticles. Moreover we investigated the vesicle insertion process into a preformed monolayer. A severe inhibition was observed only in the presence of ~136 nm NPs compared to minor effects in the presence of ~12 nm NPs. Our study clearly shows that the size of the nanoparticles made of the same material determines the interaction with biological membranes.

Lipid segregation and membrane budding induced by the peripheral membrane binding protein annexin A2.

The formation of dynamic membrane microdomains is an important phenomenon in many signal transduction and membrane trafficking events. It is driven by intrinsic properties of membrane lipids and integral as well as membrane-associated proteins. Here we analyzed the ability of one peripherally associated membrane protein, annexin A2 (AnxA2), to induce the formation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2)-rich domains in giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) of complex lipid composition. AnxA2 is a cytosolic protein that can bind PI(4,5)P2 and other acidic phospholipids in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner and that has been implicated in cellular membrane dynamics in endocytosis and exocytosis. We show that AnxA2 binding to GUVs induces lipid phase separation and the recruitment of PI(4,5)P2, cholesterol and glycosphingolipids into larger clusters. This property is observed for the full-length monomeric protein, a mutant derivative comprising the C-terminal protein core domain and for AnxA2 residing in a heterotetrameric complex with its intracellular binding partner S100A10. All AnxA2 derivatives inducing PI(4,5)P2 clustering are also capable of forming interconnections between PI(4,5)P2-rich microdomains of adjacent GUVs. Furthermore, they can induce membrane indentations rich in PI(4,5)P2 and inward budding of these membrane domains into the lumen of GUVs. This inward vesiculation is specific for AnxA2 and not shared with other PI(4,5)P2-binding proteins such as the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of phospholipase Cδ1. Together our results indicate that annexins such as AnxA2 can efficiently induce membrane deformations after lipid segregation, a mechanism possibly underlying annexin functions in membrane trafficking.