Cross-cultural comparison of the neural correlates of true and false memory retrieval.

Prior work has shown Americans have higher levels of memory specificity than East Asians. Neuroimaging studies have not investigated mechanisms that account for cultural differences at retrieval. In this study, we use fMRI to assess whether mnemonic discrimination, distinguishing novel from previously encountered stimuli, accounts for cultural differences in memory. Fifty-five American and 55 Taiwanese young adults completed an object recognition paradigm testing discrimination of old targets, similar lures and novel foils. Mnemonic discrimination was tested by comparing discrimination of similar lures from studied targets, and results showed the relationship between activity in left fusiform gyrus and behavioural discrimination between target and lure objects differed across cultural groups. Parametric modulation analyses of activity during lure correct rejections also indicated that groups differed in left superior parietal cortex response to variations in lure similarity. Additional analyses of old vs. new activity indicated that Americans and Taiwanese differ in the neural activity supporting general object recognition in the hippocampus, left inferior frontal gyrus and middle frontal gyrus. Results are juxtaposed against comparisons of the regions activated in common across the two cultures. Overall, Americans and Taiwanese differ in the extent to which they recruit visual processing and attention modulating brain regions.

Differential neural processing of value during decision-making in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and healthy controls.

BACKGROUND: Risk-taking behaviours are observed among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We sought to evaluate altered neural processing of stimuli values associated with risk-taking decision behaviour, distinct from learning requirements, among adults with ADHD. METHODS: Overall, 32 adults with ADHD and 32 healthy controls without ADHD underwent a lottery choice task in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment. Participants accepted or rejected stakes with explicit information about variable probabilities of winning or losing points at different magnitudes. Outcomes were independent across trials, circumventing reward learning. Data analysis explored group differences in neurobehavioural responses to stimuli values during choice decision-making processing and outcome feedback. RESULTS: Compared with healthy controls, adults with ADHD had slower response times and tended to accept more stakes with a middle-to-low probability of winning. Adults with ADHD had evidence of lower dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) activity and reduced sensitivity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) region of interest in response to linear changes in probability, compared with healthy controls. Lower DLPFC responses were associated with lower VMPFC probability sensitivity and greater risk-taking among healthy controls but not adults with ADHD. Compared with health controls, adults with ADHD showed higher responses to loss outcomes in the putamen and hippocampus. LIMITATIONS: Assessments of real-life decision behaviours are required to further validate the experimental findings. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings explore tonic and phasic neural processing of value-related information that modulates risk-taking behaviours among adults with ADHD. Dysregulated neural computation of the values of behavioural actions and outcomes in the frontostriatal circuits may underlie decision processing distinct from reward learning differences among adults with ADHD. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02642068.

Personal socio-cultural preferences modulate neural correlates of decisions to socialize with powerful persons.

Social power differences fundamentally shape the behavioral interaction dynamics of groups and societies. While it has long been recognized that individual socio-cultural preferences mitigate social interactions involving persons of power, there is limited empirical data on the underlying neural correlates. To bridge this gap, we asked university student participants to decide whether they were willing to engage in social activities involving their teachers (higher power status), classmates (equal power status), or themselves (control) while functional brain images were acquired. Questionnaires assessed participants' preferences for power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and cultural intelligence. As expected, participants generally accepted more social interactions with classmates than teachers. Also, left inferior frontal activity was higher when accepting than when rejecting social interactions with teachers. Critically, power distance preferences further modulated right lateral frontoparietal activity contrasting approach relative to avoidance decisions towards teachers. In addition, uncertainty avoidance modulated activity in medial frontal, precuneus, and left supramarginal areas distinguishing approach decisions towards teachers relative to classmates. Cultural intelligence modulated neural responses to classmate approach/avoidance decisions in anterior cingulate and left parietal areas. Overall, functional activities in distinct brain networks reflected different personal socio-cultural preferences despite observed social decisions to interact with others of differential power status. Such findings highlight that social approach or avoidance behaviors towards powerful persons involves differential subjective neural processes possibly involved in computing implicit social utility.

Functional connectivity with medial temporal regions differs across cultures during post-encoding rest.

Connectivity of the brain at rest can reflect individual differences and impact behavioral outcomes, including memory. The present study investigated how culture influences functional connectivity with regions of the medial temporal lobe. In this study, 46 Americans and 59 East Asians completed a resting state scan after encoding pictures of objects. To investigate cross-cultural differences in resting state functional connectivity, left parahippocampal gyrus (anterior and posterior regions) and left hippocampus were selected as seed regions. These regions were selected, because they were previously implicated in a study of cultural differences during the successful encoding of detailed memories. Results revealed that left posterior parahippocampal gyrus had stronger connectivity with temporo-occipital regions for East Asians compared with Americans and stronger connectivity with parieto-occipital regions for Americans compared with East Asians. Left anterior parahippocampal gyrus had stronger connectivity with temporal regions for East Asians than Americans and stronger connectivity with frontal regions for Americans than East Asians. Although connectivity did not relate to memory performance, patterns did relate to cultural values. The degree of independent self-construal and subjective value of tradition were associated with functional connectivity involving left anterior parahippocampal gyrus. Findings are discussed in terms of potential cultural differences in memory consolidation or more general trait or state-based processes, such as holistic versus analytic processing.

Multimorbidity and Regional Volumes of the Default Mode Network in Brain Aging.

INTRODUCTION: The default mode network (DMN) is selectively vulnerable in brain aging. Little is known about the effect of multimorbidity as a whole onto the brain structural integrity. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to investigate the association between multimorbidity and the structural integrity of DMN. METHODS: We enrolled senior volunteers aged between 60 and 80 years in Hualien County during 2014-2018 and conducted in-person interview to collect information on chronic diseases. Fasting blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) were tested. We assessed multimorbidity burden by the cumulative illness rating scale-geriatric (CIRS-G). MRI brain scans were standardized to measure the regional volume within the DMN. In a cross-sectional design, we employed stepwise regression models to evaluate the effects of age, sex, hyperglycemia, and multimorbidity on the DMN. RESULTS: A total of 170 volunteers were enrolled with a mean age of 66.9 years, female preponderance (71%), an average mini-mental state examination score of 27.6, a mean HbA1c of 6.0, and a mean CIRS-G total score (TS) of 7.2. We found that older age was associated with reduced volumes in the hippocampus, left rostral anterior cingulate cortex, right posterior cingulate, right isthmus, precuneus, and right supramarginal. Higher levels of HbA1c and fasting glucose were associated with a reduced volume in the hippocampus only. A higher CIRS-G-TS was associated with reduced volumes in the left posterior cingulate cortex and right supramarginal gyrus; while a higher CIRS-G severity index was associated with a smaller right precuneus and right supramarginal. CONCLUSIONS: In the DMN, hippocampal volume shows vulnerability to aging and hyperglycemia, whereas the posterior cingulate, supramarginal, and precuneus cortices may be the key sites to reflect the total effects of multimorbidity.

Social Robots for Evaluating Attention State in Older Adults.

Sustained attention is essential for older adults to maintain an active lifestyle, and the deficiency of this function is often associated with health-related risks such as falling and frailty. The present study examined whether the well-established age-effect on reducing mind-wandering, the drift to internal thoughts that are seen to be detrimental to attentional control, could be replicated by using a robotic experimenter for older adults who are not as familiar with online technologies. A total of 28 younger and 22 older adults performed a Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) by answering thought probes regarding their attention states and providing confidence ratings for their own task performances. The indices from the modified SART suggested a well-documented conservative response strategy endorsed by older adults, which were represented by slower responses and increased omission errors. Moreover, the slower responses and increased omissions were found to be associated with less self-reported mind-wandering, thus showing consistency with their higher subjective ratings of attentional control. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of constructing age-related cognitive profiles with attention evaluation instruction based on a social companion robot for older adults at home.

Default-mode network activation underlies accurate contextual processing of exclusive disjunctions in older but not younger adults.

Young adults proactively engage frontoparietal processing of contextual cues to preempt subsequent events. Rather than being preemptive, older adults engage these brain areas reactively upon event occurrences. Reactive frontoparietal processes in older adults, however, might be insufficient for complex contextual neural computations where utilities of contexts are not straightforward but dependent on a set of stimulus-response rules. Applying non-linear logic (XOR) rules in an fMRI experiment, we found higher default-mode network (DMN) activity critical for correctly responding to such contingency in older but not younger adults. Moreover, older individuals with higher proactive cue processing showed better performances with less DMN activity. Thus, DMN processing provides critical support when older adults are faced with complex contextual contingencies. These findings suggest an age-related change in the neurocomputational role of introspective processes in decision-making from young to older adulthood.

Frontal, Striatal, and Medial Temporal Sensitivity to Value Distinguishes Risk-Taking from Risk-Aversive Older Adults during Decision Making.

Aging compromises the frontal, striatal, and medial temporal areas of the reward system, impeding accurate value representation and feedback processing critical for decision making. However, substantial variability characterizes age-related effects on the brain so that some older individuals evince clear neurocognitive declines whereas others are spared. Moreover, the functional correlates of normative individual differences in older-adult value-based decision making remain unclear. We performed a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in 173 human older adults during a lottery choice task in which costly to more desirable stakes were depicted using low to high expected values (EVs) of points. Across trials that varied in EVs, participants decided to accept or decline the offered stakes to maximize total accumulated points. We found that greater age was associated with less optimal decisions, accepting stakes when losses were likely and declining stakes when gains were likely, and was associated with increased frontal activity for costlier stakes. Critically, risk preferences varied substantially across older adults and neural sensitivity to EVs in the frontal, striatal, and medial temporal areas dissociated risk-aversive from risk-taking individuals. Specifically, risk-averters increased neural responses to increasing EVs as stakes became more desirable, whereas risk-takers increased neural responses with decreasing EV as stakes became more costly. Risk preference also modulated striatal responses during feedback with risk-takers showing more positive responses to gains compared with risk-averters. Our findings highlight the frontal, striatal, and medial temporal areas as key neural loci in which individual differences differentially affect value-based decision-making ability in older adults. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Frontal, striatal, and medial temporal functions implicated in value-based decision processing of rewards and costs undergo substantial age-related changes. However, age effects on brain function and cognition differ across individuals. How this normative variation relates to older-adult value-based decision making is unclear. We found that although the ability make optimal decisions declines with age, there is still much individual variability in how this deterioration occurs. Critically, whereas risk-averters showed increased neural activity to increasingly valuable stakes in frontal, striatal, and medial temporal areas, risk-takers instead increased activity as stakes became more costly. Such distinct functional decision-making processing in these brain regions across normative older adults may reflect individual differences in susceptibility to age-related brain changes associated with incipient cognitive impairment.

Region of interest correction factors improve reliability of diffusion imaging measures within and across scanners and field strengths.

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) measures are commonly used as imaging markers to investigate individual differences in relation to behavioral and health-related characteristics. However, the ability to detect reliable associations in cross-sectional or longitudinal studies is limited by the reliability of the diffusion measures. Several studies have examined the reliability of diffusion measures within (i.e. intra-site) and across (i.e. inter-site) scanners with mixed results. Our study compares the test-retest reliability of diffusion measures within and across scanners and field strengths in cognitively normal older adults with a follow-up interval less than 2.25 years. Intra-class correlation (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CoV) of fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) were evaluated in sixteen white matter and twenty-six gray matter bilateral regions. The ICC for intra-site reliability (0.32 to 0.96 for FA and 0.18 to 0.95 for MD in white matter regions; 0.27 to 0.89 for MD and 0.03 to 0.79 for FA in gray matter regions) and inter-site reliability (0.28 to 0.95 for FA in white matter regions, 0.02 to 0.86 for MD in gray matter regions) with longer follow-up intervals were similar to earlier studies using shorter follow-up intervals. The reliability of across field strengths comparisons was lower than intra- and inter-site reliabilities. Within and across scanner comparisons showed that diffusion measures were more stable in larger white matter regions (>1500 mm(3)). For gray matter regions, the MD measure showed stability in specific regions and was not dependent on region size. Linear correction factor estimated from cross-sectional or longitudinal data improved the reliability across field strengths. Our findings indicate that investigations relating diffusion measures to external variables must consider variable reliability across the distinct regions of interest and that correction factors can be used to improve consistency of measurement across field strengths. An important result of this work is that inter-scanner and field strength effects can be partially mitigated with linear correction factors specific to regions of interest. These data-driven linear correction techniques can be applied in cross-sectional or longitudinal studies.

Changes in brain function occur years before the onset of cognitive impairment.

To develop targeted intervention strategies for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, we first need to identify early markers of brain changes that occur before the onset of cognitive impairment. Here, we examine changes in resting-state brain function in humans from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. We compared longitudinal changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), assessed by (15)O-water PET, over a mean 7 year period between participants who eventually developed cognitive impairment (n = 22) and those who remained cognitively normal (n = 99). Annual PET assessments began an average of 11 years before the onset of cognitive impairment in the subsequently impaired group, so all participants were cognitively normal during the scanning interval. A voxel-based mixed model analysis was used to compare groups with and without subsequent impairment. Participants with subsequent impairment showed significantly greater longitudinal rCBF increases in orbitofrontal, medial frontal, and anterior cingulate regions, and greater longitudinal decreases in parietal, temporal, and thalamic regions compared with those who maintained cognitive health. These changes were linear in nature and were not influenced by longitudinal changes in regional tissue volume. Although all participants were cognitively normal during the scanning interval, most of the accelerated rCBF changes seen in the subsequently impaired group occurred within regions thought to be critical for the maintenance of cognitive function. These changes also occurred within regions that show early accumulation of pathology in Alzheimer's disease, suggesting that there may be a connection between early pathologic change and early changes in brain function.

One-pot synthesis of cinnamylideneacetophenones and their in vitro cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells.

A series of cinnamylideneacetophenones were synthesized via a modified Claisen-Schmidt condensation reaction and evaluated for cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells using the Alamar Blue™ assay. Derivatives 17 and 18 bearing a 2-nitro group on the B ring, exhibited sub-micromolar cytotoxicity in MCF-7 cells (IC50=71 and 1.9 nM), respectively. Derivative 17 also displayed sub-micromolar (IC50=780 nM) cytotoxicity in MDA-MB-468 cells. Additionally, 17 and 18 displayed significantly less cytotoxicity than the chemotherapeutic doxorubicin in non-tumorigenic MCF-10A cells. This study provides evidence supporting the continued development of nitro-substituted cinnamylideneacetophenones as small molecules to treat breast cancer.

Partial-thickness rotator cuff tears: a review of current literature on evaluation and management.

Rotator cuff disease is a common cause of shoulder pain for which partial-thickness rotator cuff tears occupy a significant proportion. Such tears are often difficult to diagnose and manage in the general clinic setting. A review of the available literature from well-known databases was performed in this study to provide a concise overview of partial-thickness rotator cuff tears to aid physicians in their understanding and management.

Effects of Age on Cross-Cultural Differences in the Neural Correlates of Memory Retrieval.

Culture can shape memory, but little research investigates age effects. The present study examines the neural correlates of memory retrieval for old, new, and similar lures in younger and older Americans and Taiwanese. Results show that age and culture impact discrimination of old from new items. Taiwanese performed worse than Americans, with age effects more pronounced for Taiwanese. Americans activated the hippocampus for new more than old items, but pattern of activity for the conditions did not differ for Taiwanese, nor did it interact with age. The engagement of left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) differed across cultures. Patterns of greater activity for old (for Americans) or new (for Taiwanese) items were eliminated with age, particularly for older Americans. The results are interpreted as reflecting cultural differences in orientation to novelty vs. familiarity for younger, but not older, adults, with the LIFG supporting interference resolution at retrieval. Support is not as strong for cultural differences in pattern separation processes. Although Americans had higher levels of memory discrimination than Taiwanese and engaged the LIFG for correct rejections more than false alarms, the patterns of behavior and neural activity did not interact with culture and age. Neither culture nor age impacted hippocampal activity, which is surprising given the region's role in pattern separation. The findings suggest ways in which cultural life experiences and concomitant information processing strategies can contribute to consistent effects of age across cultures or contribute to different trajectories with age in terms of memory.

Culture, prefrontal volume, and memory.

Prior cross-cultural studies have demonstrated differences among Eastern and Western cultures in memory and cognition along with variation in neuroanatomy and functional engagement. We further probed cultural neuroanatomical variability in terms of its relationship with memory performance. Specifically, we investigated how memory performance related to gray matter volume in several prefrontal lobe structures, including across cultures. For 58 American and 57 Taiwanese young adults, memory performance was measured with the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) using performance on learning trial 1, on which Americans had higher scores than the Taiwanese, and the long delayed free recall task, on which groups performed similarly. MRI data were reconstructed using FreeSurfer. Across both cultures, we observed that larger volumes of the bilateral rostral anterior cingulate were associated with lower scores on both CVLT tasks. In terms of effects of culture, the relationship between learning trial 1 scores and gray matter volumes in the right superior frontal gyrus had a trend for a positive relationship in Taiwanese but not in Americans. In addition to the a priori analysis of select frontal volumes, an exploratory whole-brain analysis compared volumes-without considering CVLT performance-across the two cultural groups in order to assess convergence with prior research. Several cultural differences were found, such that Americans had larger volumes in the bilateral superior frontal and lateral occipital cortex, whereas Taiwanese had larger volumes in the bilateral rostral middle frontal and inferior temporal cortex, and the right precuneus.

Frontal function and executive processing in older adults: process and region specific age-related longitudinal functional changes.

Longitudinal studies on aging brain function have shown declines in frontal activity as opposed to the over-recruitment shown in cross-sectional studies. Such mixed findings suggest that age-related changes in frontal activity may be process- and region-specific, having varied associations across different frontal regions involved in distinct cognitive processes, rather than generalized across the frontal cortex. Using data from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA), we examined individual differences through cross-sectional associations at baseline evaluation and longitudinal changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in relation to different executive abilities in cognitively normal older adults. We found that, at baseline, greater rCBF in middle frontal regions correlated with better performance in abstraction and chunking, but greater rCBF in the insula and a distinct middle frontal region correlated with poorer inhibition and discrimination, respectively. In addition, increases in frontal rCBF over time were associated with longitudinal declines in abstraction, chunking, inhibition, discrimination, switching, and manipulation. These findings indicate process- and region-specific, rather than uniform, age-related changes in frontal brain-behavior associations, and also suggest that longitudinally high-levels of frontal engagement reflect declining rather than stable cognition.

Age-related differences in ERP correlates of value-based decision making.

This study evaluates age-related differences in the temporal dynamics underlying neural processing of value for decision-making in younger and older adults. We applied a lottery-choice task with event-related potentials to determine how and when brain activity during choice and outcome processing diverge between younger and older adults. Behaviorally, older adults accepted more losing stakes than younger adults. During choice, younger adults evinced higher P2 ERP-response positivity with a later P3 positivity that monotonically increased with low to middle to high win probability. Older adults evinced lower P2 responses and P3 amplitudes with more positivity for high and low relative to middle win probability. Both age groups showed similar feedback-related negativity and late parietal positivity, indicating intact reward prediction error representations and salience integration. Feedback-P3 showed more complex sensitivity to expectancy violations in older than younger adults, suggesting subjective uncertainty about reward expectations. Reduced early general neural processing of objective stimulus value with greater contribution of downstream subjective processes might underlie older adult risk-taking behaviors.

Mediating role of resilience in the relationships of physical activity and mindful self-awareness with peace of mind among college students.

Peace of mind (PoM) is an index of mental health in Asian culture and emphasizes low arousal, happiness, harmony, and an internal state of peacefulness. While previous studies have found that mindful self-awareness can contribute to PoM, regular physical activity (PA) is also an important factor contributing to one's PoM due to its function in promoting one's resilience. The study aims to investigate a hypothetical model that assumes PA is associated with resilience while controlling for mindful self-awareness, contributing to PoM. The PoM scale, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, Chinese translation of Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, and PA self-report questionnaire were used. A path analysis was applied to test the association between these variables and the mediating role of resilience. A total of 436 students from a university in Taiwan were recruited; the mean age was 20.87, with 46.3% female and 73.6% engaging in over 150 min/week of moderate PA. Gender and age negatively correlated with PA. After controlling for age and gender, there was no direct effect of physical activity on PoM; both mindful self-awareness and PA predict resilience, which in turn predicts PoM, suggesting that both cognitive (i.e., mindful self-awareness) and PA are important to cultivate resilience and thus PoM.

Identifying Mild Cognitive Impairment by Using Human-Robot Interactions.

BACKGROUND: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI), which is common in older adults, is a risk factor for dementia. Rapidly growing health care demand associated with global population aging has spurred the development of new digital tools for the assessment of cognitive performance in older adults. OBJECTIVE: To overcome methodological drawbacks of previous studies (e.g., use of potentially imprecise screening tools that fail to include patients with MCI), this study investigated the feasibility of assessing multiple cognitive functions in older adults with and without MCI by using a social robot. METHODS: This study included 33 older adults with or without MCI and 33 healthy young adults. We examined the utility of five robotic cognitive tests focused on language, episodic memory, prospective memory, and aspects of executive function to classify age-associated cognitive changes versus MCI. Standardized neuropsychological tests were collected to validate robotic test performance. RESULTS: The assessment was well received by all participants. Robotic tests assessing delayed episodic memory, prospective memory, and aspects of executive function were optimal for differentiating between older adults with and without MCI, whereas the global cognitive test (i.e., Mini-Mental State Examination) failed to capture such subtle cognitive differences among older adults. Furthermore, robot-administered tests demonstrated sound ability to predict the results of standardized cognitive tests, even after adjustment for demographic variables and global cognitive status. CONCLUSION: Overall, our results suggest the human-robot interaction approach is feasible for MCI identification. Incorporating additional cognitive test measures might improve the stability and reliability of such robot-assisted MCI diagnoses.

Gray matter volume alteration is associated with insistence on sameness and cognitive flexibility in autistic youth.

Restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs) are hallmark characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Previous studies suggest that insistence on sameness (IS) characterized as higher-order RRBs may be a promising subgrouping variable for ASD. Cognitive inflexibility may underpin IS behaviors. However, the neuroanatomical correlates of IS and associated cognitive functions remain unclear. We analyzed data from 140 autistic youth and 124 typically developing (TD) youth (mean age = 15.8 years). Autistic youth were stratified by median-split based on three current IS items in the autism diagnostic interview-revised into two groups (high, HIS, n = 70, and low, LIS, n = 70). Differences in cognitive flexibility were assessed by the Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery (CANTAB). T1-weighted brain structural images were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to identify differences in gray matter (GM) volume among the three groups. GM volume of regions showing group differences was then correlated with cognitive flexibility. The HIS group showed decreased GM volumes in the left supramarginal gyrus compared to the LIS group and increased GM volumes in the vermis VIII and left cerebellar lobule VIII compared to TD individuals. We did not find significant correlations between regional GM volumes and extra-dimensional shift errors. IS may be a unique RRB component and a potentially valuable stratifier of ASD. However, the neurocognitive underpinnings require further clarification. LAY SUMMARY: The present study found parietal, temporal and cerebellar gray matter volume alterations in autistic youth with greater insistence on sameness. The findings suggest that insistence on sameness may be a useful feature to parse the heterogeneity of the autism spectrum yet further research investigating the underlying neurocognitive mechanism is warranted.

Age-Related Differences in the Neural Processing of Idioms: A Positive Perspective.

We examined whether older adults benefit from a larger mental-lexicon size and world knowledge to process idioms, one of few abilities that do not stop developing until later adulthood. Participants viewed four-character sequences presented one at a time that combined to form (1) frequent idioms, (2) infrequent idioms, (3) random sequences, or (4) perceptual controls, and judged whether the four-character sequence was an idiom. Compared to their younger counterparts, older adults had higher accuracy for frequent idioms and equivalent accuracy for infrequent idioms. Compared to random sequences, when processing frequent and infrequent idioms, older adults showed higher activations in brain regions related to sematic representation than younger adults, suggesting that older adults devoted more cognitive resources to processing idioms. Also, higher activations in the articulation-related brain regions indicate that older adults adopted the thinking-aloud strategy in the idiom judgment task. These results suggest re-organized neural computational involvement in older adults' language representations due to life-long experiences. The current study provides evidence for the alternative view that aging may not necessarily be solely accompanied by decline.