How the design and complexity of concept maps influence cognitive learning processes.

Concept maps are assumed to enhance learning as their inherent structure makes relations between information more salient. Nevertheless, research on how to design concept maps as conducive to learning as possible is still rare. In particular, the salience of spatial arrangement of thematically related concepts within the map as well as the complexity of the map were found to be central design elements that influence learning. This study aimed to examine how the structure (i.e., the salience of the spatial relationship between individual concepts) and the complexity (i.e., number of nodes per sub concept) influence learning. Accordingly, a 2 (low vs. high salience of map structure) × 2 (few vs. many nodes) between-subject design was used (N = 122) to examine cognitive processes while learning with a concept map. No significant learning performance differences were found. Concepts maps with a low salience of map structure increased perceptions of disorientation. A serial mediation with learning performances as dependent variable revealed that the salience of the map structure is significantly associated with disorientation and extraneous cognitive load perceptions. By this, current attempts to measure extraneous cognitive load are questioned.

The effect of signaling in dependence on the extraneous cognitive load in learning environments.

Text-based learning media are often used in primary, secondary and university education. Therefore, text designers can support the learner by highlighting the most relevant information by using visual cues. Despite this signaling effect's broad empirical basis, the extent to which the effectiveness of educational signals is dependent on moderator variables, like the design and layout of the text has not been investigated to date. In the current experiment, 138 university students learned about the formation of tsunamis from an instructional text. The text was manipulated in terms of signaling (color cues vs. no color cues) and induced learning-irrelevant extraneous cognitive load (fluent text font vs. disfluent text font). The results revealed that learners who had received the signaled text outperformed those who received the non-signaled text in terms of transfer performance. These results are explained by cognitive load, which was reduced in the signaling condition. The text font had no influence on the learning outcomes. Extraneous load induction further led to higher metacognitive accuracy and invested effort, while cognitive load and frustration were also increased. Interaction effects only occurred in terms of testing time, ease of learning and navigation. Results indicate that signaling is beneficial for transfer performance, independent of the font design of text.

Finding Our Way in the Dark Proteome.

The traditional structure-function paradigm has provided significant insights for well-folded proteins in which structures can be easily and rapidly revealed by X-ray crystallography beamlines. However, approximately one-third of the human proteome is comprised of intrinsically disordered proteins and regions (IDPs/IDRs) that do not adopt a dominant well-folded structure, and therefore remain "unseen" by traditional structural biology methods. This Perspective considers the challenges raised by the "Dark Proteome", in which determining the diverse conformational substates of IDPs in their free states, in encounter complexes of bound states, and in complexes retaining significant disorder requires an unprecedented level of integration of multiple and complementary solution-based experiments that are analyzed with state-of-the art molecular simulation, Bayesian probabilistic models, and high-throughput computation. We envision how these diverse experimental and computational tools can work together through formation of a "computational beamline" that will allow key functional features to be identified in IDP structural ensembles.

Successful learning with whiteboard animations - A question of their procedural character or narrative embedding?

Although whiteboard animations are increasingly used for educational purposes, there is little empirical evidence as to why such animations can enhance learning. To specify essential elements, their dynamic visual presentation, as well as their narrative embedding, were found to be theortically important. In a first Experiment (N = 133) with a 2 (presentation mode: static pictures vs. progressive drawing) x 2 (narrative context: with vs. without a narrative) between-subject factorial design, motivational, cognitive, affective variables, as well as learning outcomes, of secondary school students were measured. Results revealed that progressive drawing, as well as a narrative context, are mostly associated with an increase in learning-relevant variables. In a second experiment with the same sample and the same experimental design but a different whiteboard animation, results from Experiment 1 generalize to another learning content. Again, a progressive drawing, as well as a narrative context within whiteboard animation, fostered learning relevant variables as well as learning outcomes. Results are discussed considering the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the contiguity effect as well as the instructional design theory of anchored instruction.

The Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments (CASTLE).

For a long time, research on individuals learning in digital environments was primarily based on cognitive-oriented theories. This paper aims at providing evidence that social processes affect individual learning with digital materials. Based on these theories and empirical results, a social-processes-augmented theory is suggested: the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments (CASTLE). This CASTLE postulates that social cues in digital materials activate social schemata in learners leading to enhanced (para-)social, motivational, emotional, and metacognitive processes. To substantiate this theory, socio-cognitive theories are used, which predict social influences on learning with digital materials. Besides, previous empirical findings are presented assuming that with a rising number of social cues in digital materials, the influence of social processes increases. Finally, consequences regarding the design of digital learning media are discussed.

The influence of the order and congruency of correct and erroneous worked examples on learning and (meta-)cognitive load.

Several studies highlight the importance of the order of different instructional methods when designing learning environments. Correct but also erroneous worked examples are frequently used methods to foster students' learning performance, especially in problem-solving. However, so far no study examined how the order of these example types affects learning. While the expertise reversal effect would suggest presenting correct examples first, the productive failure approach hypothesizes the reversed order to be learning-facilitating. In addition, congruency of subsequent exemplified problems was tested as a moderator of the effect of order on learning. For example, with arithmetic tasks, congruent problems target exactly the same calculation while incongruent problems refer to different calculations. Following cascade theory, a model of cognitive skill acquisition, presenting correct examples first should be more effective when the subsequent exemplified problems are different. To test the (conflicting) hypotheses, 83 university students were assigned to one of the four conditions in a 2 (correct vs. erroneous example first) × 2 (same vs. different exemplified problems) between-subject design. Learners navigated through a slideshow on the topic of Vedic mathematics consisting of explicit instruction, worked examples differing in terms of the experimental condition, and transfer problems. Although no main or interaction effects were found regarding students' learning performance, mediational analysis offered support for the expertise reversal effect, as it indicated that there is a significant indirect effect of order via mental load on learning. Presenting correct examples first and erroneous examples second resulted in a lower mental load, which in turn was associated with better learning performance. In contrast, presenting erroneous examples first and correct examples second resulted in a more accurate self-assessment of learning performance. These findings offer first insights into the question of how the presentation order of different example types impacts learning and provide practical recommendations for the design of educational media. Results are discussed in light of the ongoing debate regarding the question if less guided instructional methods should precede or succeed more guided methods.

Visualizing pathogens: Disfluent shapes of pathogens increase their perceived complexity and danger while realism and disfluency boost the credibility of visualizations.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the public was regularly presented with visualizations of the viral pathogen causing this disease. Since there are several ways of visually communicating information, we investigate whether different types of visualizations affect how viewers judge the credibility of information as well as the complexity and potential harm of pathogens. A first experiment was conducted to assess whether a round, fluent shape elicits a different response than pathogens featuring disfluent components such as thread-like appendages. Visualizations of disfluent bacteria were rated as more credible than those of fluent bacteria. In Experiment 2, bacteria were either presented as realistic renderings or as cartoon-like line drawings (varied between-subjects). Furthermore, half of the six bacteria had fluent shapes, while the other half featured disfluent shapes, resulting in the within-subjects factor of fluency. Participants were asked to rate the credibility, complexity, and risk of serious illness associated with these bacteria. We found that disfluent bacteria were perceived as having a more complex metabolism and as holding a higher risk for serious illness. Furthermore, realism and disfluent shapes increase the credibility of visualizations, but not the credibility of additional information. These results have important implications for the field of science communication.

COVID-19 as an accelerator for digitalization at a German university: Establishing hybrid campuses in times of crisis.

As a result of the COVID-19 outbreak, teaching in universities needed to be quickly transitioned from regular on-campus classes into technology-enhanced teaching formats. In this article, we present the case study of Chemnitz University of Technology (Germany), where digital classes were introduced in a matter of weeks. By analyzing syllabus data, we found that the use of video and video conferencing is an important current development. Related to these findings, we present evidence from instructional psychology and social media research that can help in the design of teaching during this crisis. We highlight the need for multimodal learning, that is, learning settings that use multiple sensory modalities. Importantly, we present a strategy of hybrid campuses for this and potential future emergencies. This approach describes how the social distancing measures currently in effect can be used to re-think higher education based on a reasonable use of technology. Taken together, the COVID-19 crisis can be a time of major reform in higher education that will accelerate the process of digitalization in an unprecedented way.

Memory-related cognitive load effects in an interrupted learning task: A model-based explanation.

BACKGROUND: The Cognitive Load Theory provides a well-established framework for investigating aspects of learning situations that demand learners' working memory resources. However, the interplay of these aspects at the cognitive and neural level is still not fully understood. METHOD: We developed four computational models in the cognitive architecture ACT-R to clarify underlying memory-related strategies and mechanisms. Our models account for human data of an experiment that required participants to perform a symbol sequence learning task with embedded interruptions. We explored the inclusion of subsymbolic mechanisms to explain these data and used our final model to generate fMRI predictions. RESULTS: The final model indicates a reasonable fit for reaction times and accuracy and links the fMRI predictions to the Cognitive Load Theory. CONCLUSIONS: Our work emphasizes the influence of task characteristics and supports a process-related view on cognitive load in instructional scenarios. It further contributes to the discussion of underlying mechanisms at a neural level.

Effects of system response delays on elderly humans' cognitive performance in a virtual training scenario.

Observed influences of system response delay in spoken human-machine dialogues are rather ambiguous and mainly focus on perceived system quality. Studies that systematically inspect effects on cognitive performance are still lacking, and effects of individual characteristics are also often neglected. Building on benefits of cognitive training for decelerating cognitive decline, this Wizard-of-Oz study addresses both issues by testing 62 elderly participants in a dialogue-based memory training with a virtual agent. Participants acquired the method of loci with fading instructional guidance and applied it afterward to memorizing and recalling lists of German nouns. System response delays were randomly assigned, and training performance was included as potential mediator. Participants' age, gender, and subscales of affinity for technology (enthusiasm, competence, positive and negative perception of technology) were inspected as potential moderators. The results indicated positive effects on recall performance with higher training performance, female gender, and less negative perception of technology. Additionally, memory retention and facets of affinity for technology moderated increasing system response delays. Participants also provided higher ratings in perceived system quality with higher enthusiasm for technology but reported increasing frustration with a more positive perception of technology. Potential explanations and implications for the design of spoken dialogue systems are discussed.

Embodied learning: introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration.

Research on learning and education is increasingly influenced by theories of embodied cognition. Several embodiment-based interventions have been empirically investigated, including gesturing, interactive digital media, and bodily activity in general. This review aims to present the most important theoretical foundations of embodied cognition and their application to educational research. Furthermore, we critically review recent research concerning the effectiveness of embodiment interventions and develop a taxonomy to more properly characterize research on embodied cognition. The main dimensions of this taxonomy are bodily engagement (i.e. how much bodily activity is involved) and task integration (i.e. whether bodily activities are related to a learning task in a meaningful way or not). By locating studies on the 2 × 2 grid resulting from this taxonomy and assessing the corresponding learning outcomes, we identify opportunities, problems, and challenges of research on embodied learning.

Schema-related cognitive load influences performance, speech, and physiology in a dual-task setting: A continuous multi-measure approach.

Schema acquisition processes comprise an essential source of cognitive demands in learning situations. To shed light on related mechanisms and influencing factors, this study applied a continuous multi-measure approach for cognitive load assessment. In a dual-task setting, a sample of 123 student participants learned visually presented symbol combinations with one of two levels of complexity while memorizing auditorily presented number sequences. Learners' cognitive load during the learning task was addressed by secondary task performance, prosodic speech parameters (pauses, articulation rate), and physiological markers (heart rate, skin conductance response). While results revealed increasing primary and secondary task performance over the trials, decreases in speech and physiological parameters indicated a reduction in the overall level of cognitive load with task progression. In addition, the robustness of the acquired schemata was confirmed by a transfer task that required participants to apply the obtained symbol combinations. Taken together, the observed pattern of evidence supports the idea of a logarithmically decreasing progression of cognitive load with increasing schema acquisition, and further hints on robust and stable transfer performance, even under enhanced transfer demands. Finally, theoretical and practical consequences consider evidence on desirable difficulties in learning as well as the potential of multimodal cognitive load detection in learning applications.

Measuring Cognitive Load in Embodied Learning Settings.

In recent years, research on embodied cognition has inspired a number of studies on multimedia learning and instructional psychology. However, in contrast to traditional research on education and multimedia learning, studies on embodied learning (i.e., focusing on bodily action and perception in the context of education) in some cases pose new problems for the measurement of cognitive load. This review provides an overview over recent studies on embodied learning in which cognitive load was measured using surveys, behavioral data, or physiological measures. The different methods are assessed in terms of their success in finding differences of cognitive load in embodied learning scenarios. At the same time, we highlight the most important challenges for researchers aiming to include these measures into their study designs. The main issues we identified are: (1) Subjective measures must be appropriately phrased to be useful for embodied learning; (2) recent findings indicate potentials as well as problematic aspects of dual-task measures; (3) the use of physiological measures offers great potential, but may require mobile equipment in the context of embodied scenarios; (4) meta-cognitive measures can be useful extensions of cognitive load measurement for embodied learning.

Bodily Effort Enhances Learning and Metacognition: Investigating the Relation Between Physical Effort and Cognition Using Dual-Process Models of Embodiment.

Recent embodiment research revealed that cognitive processes can be influenced by bodily cues. Some of these cues were found to elicit disparate effects on cognition. For instance, weight sensations can inhibit problem-solving performance, but were shown to increase judgments regarding recall probability (judgments of learning; JOLs) in memory tasks. We investigated the effects of physical effort on learning and metacognition by conducting two studies in which we varied whether a backpack was worn or not while 20 nouns were to be learned. Participants entered a JOL for each word and completed a recall test. Experiment 1 (N = 18) revealed that exerting physical effort by wearing a backpack led to higher JOLs for easy nouns, without a notable effect on difficult nouns. Participants who wore a backpack reached higher recall scores. Therefore, physical effort may act as a form of desirable difficulty during learning. In Experiment 2 (N = 30), the influence of physical effort on JOL s and learning disappeared when more difficult nouns were to be learned, implying that a high cognitive load may diminish bodily effects. These findings suggest that physical effort mainly influences superficial modes of thought and raise doubts concerning the explanatory power of metaphor-centered accounts of embodiment for higher-level cognition.

Embedded interruptions and task complexity influence schema-related cognitive load progression in an abstract learning task.

Cognitive processes related to schema acquisition comprise an essential source of demands in learning situations. Since the related amount of cognitive load is supposed to change over time, plausible temporal models of load progression based on different theoretical backgrounds are inspected in this study. A total of 116 student participants completed a basal symbol sequence learning task, which provided insights into underlying cognitive dynamics. Two levels of task complexity were determined by the amount of elements within the symbol sequence. In addition, interruptions due to an embedded secondary task occurred at five predefined stages over the task. Within the resulting 2x5-factorial mixed between-within design, the continuous monitoring of efficiency in learning performance enabled assumptions on relevant resource investment. From the obtained results, a nonlinear change of learning efficiency over time seems most plausible in terms of cognitive load progression. Moreover, different effects of the induced interruptions show up in conditions of task complexity, which indicate the activation of distinct cognitive mechanisms related to structural aspects of the task. Findings are discussed in the light of evidence from research on memory and information processing.

The expertise reversal effect: cognitive load and motivational explanations.

The expertise reversal effect occurs when a learner's expertise moderates design principles such as the redundancy principle (i.e., redundant information should be excluded rather than included) derived from the cognitive load theory. Although this effect is supported by numerous experiments, indicating an overall large effect size, a variety of explanations have been proposed. The present experiment tested a cognitive load and a motivational explanation with 104 students, who reported a lack of experience in the presented instructional contents. They spent about 30 min with the instructional material to learn fundamental concepts about the gradient descent (a mathematical optimization algorithm), and with a retention and transfer test used as dependent measures. Each learner was randomly assigned to one cell of a 2 (either novices or experts introduced to through the instructional design presented previously) × 2 (either with or without additional text explaining the animations) between-subjects factorial design. The expertise reversal effect concerning the redundancy principle was replicated. Novices receiving additional text scored higher on retention and transfer than did novices without additional text, while this result was reversed for experts. Results suggest that this effect can be explained by the learner's cognitive load differences rather than overall motivation differences. Furthermore, a partial overlap was found between the motivational subdimension, "probability of success," and a cognitive load measure. On the practical side, instructional designers should consider the learner's level of expertise and their cognitive load when applying design principles. Further implications for adaptive learning environments are discussed.

Rapid culture-independent microbial analysis aboard the International Space Station (ISS).

A new culture-independent system for microbial monitoring, called the Lab-On-a-Chip Application Development Portable Test System (LOCAD-PTS), was operated aboard the International Space Station (ISS). LOCAD-PTS was launched to the ISS aboard Space Shuttle STS-116 on December 9, 2006, and has since been used by ISS crews to monitor endotoxin on cabin surfaces. Quantitative analysis was performed within 15 minutes, and sample return to Earth was not required. Endotoxin (a marker of Gram-negative bacteria) was distributed throughout the ISS, despite previous indications that mostbacteria on ISS surfaces were Gram-positive [corrected].Endotoxin was detected at 24 out of 42 surface areas tested and at every surface site where colony-forming units (cfu) were observed, even at levels of 4-120 bacterial cfu per 100 cm(2), which is below NASA in-flight requirements (<10,000 bacterial cfu per 100 cm(2)). Absent to low levels of endotoxin (<0.24 to 1.0 EU per 100 cm(2); defined in endotoxin units, or EU) were found on 31 surface areas, including on most panels in Node 1 and the US Lab. High to moderate levels (1.01 to 14.7 EU per 100 cm(2)) were found on 11 surface areas, including at exercise, hygiene, sleeping, and dining facilities. Endotoxin was absent from airlock surfaces, except the Extravehicular Hatch Handle (>3.78 EU per 100 cm(2)). Based upon data collected from the ISS so far, new culture-independent requirements (defined in EU) are suggested, which are verifiable in flight with LOCAD-PTS yet high enough to avoid false alarms. The suggested requirements are intended to supplement current ISS requirements (defined in cfu) and would serve a dual purpose of safeguarding crew health (internal spacecraft surfaces <20 EU per 100 cm(2)) and monitoring forward contamination during Constellation missions (surfaces periodically exposed to the external environment, including the airlock and space suits, <0.24 EU per 100 cm(2)).