Seasonal variation in serum eosinophilic cationic protein (S-ECP) in a general population sample.

The aim of this investigation was to study the seasonal variation in the serum levels of eosinophil cationic protein (S-ECP). The study population comprised a general population sample of 379 individuals (range: 20-45 years) who were investigated with blood sample for the measurement of S-ECP, skin prick test and methacholine challenge. The examination took place between May and October 1991. Of the 379 subjects investigated, 137 (36%) were atopic. A significant seasonal variation in S-ECP was found in the group of birch-pollen-positive subjects (P < 0.05), but not in the non-atopic or birch-negative atopic group. The mean level of S-ECP in birch-positive subjects was about twice as high in June as in birch atopic subjects examined during other months. It is concluded that seasonal variation in birch-pollen-positive subjects must be taken into account when using S-ECP clinically or in epidemiological research.

Caesium-137 in Perch in Swedish Lakes after Chernobyl-present situation, relationships and trends.

The Chernobyl accident, and the general acidification of Swedish water systems, form the base for this project. The aims of the work have been to present results on the linkage between the concentration of Cs-137 in fish, lake load of Cs and lake characteristics, to give a preliminary prognosis on the recovery, and to put the results within a wider framework of environmental hazard analysis. A broad set of data on limnology, morphometry and drainage area conditions from 41 lakes were collected during 1986 and 1987. Cs-137 was determined in 1 + perch (Cs-pe, 1-year-old perch), water, material collected by sediment traps and from surficial sediments. The main results are as follows. The average value of Cs-pe for all lakes has dropped from 9800 Bq kg(-1) (wet) to 5040 between the 2 years. Generally, the decrease is between 5 and 90%. We have tested if any factor(s) could be specifically linked to this decrease-no such factors have been found. The concentrations of Cs in sediment traps have, on average, decreased by 80%. Very high correlations exist between Cs-pe and the caesium load as determined from the sediment traps. Between 1 and 10% (mean 3.9%) of the initial fall-out deposition to the drainage area was transported from land to water during June to August 1986. The variation in initial fall-out deposition explains 65-69% of the variability in Cs-pe; the degree of explanation (= coefficient of determination, r2) increases to about 85% if one also takes into account the lake water hardness and totP. A map showing with lakes likely to have 1 + perch with higher mean Cs-concentrations than 1500 Bq kg(-1) wet is presented. Between 4000 and 7000 lakes in Sweden appear to have Cs-pe higher than 1500 Bq kg(-1) wet, figures which emphasize the serious impact of the Chernobyl accident on the environmental conditions in Sweden.

Mercury in fish in Swedish lakes.

The aim of this work has been to try to obtain a picture of the past, present and future mercury situation in fish in Swedish lakes, to make an estimate of the number of lakes threatened by 'blacklisting', and to see if the data can be used to reveal anything about the impact of liming on the Hg content in pike. The register contains a broad set of data from 1456 lakes. The main results are as follows. Trend analyses indicate that the Hg content in 1-kg pike seems to increase with time. This is interesting since there has been a significant decrease in mercury emissions from Swedish industries during the last two decades. High Hg contents in 1-kg pike appear in a very characteristic pattern, linked to specific sources of Hg emission. The data indicate that old Swedish 'sins' are still causing a lot of problems. The factors governing the leakage of Hg from soils to water ought to be a very important topic for further studies. The Hg content in pike shows the highest correlation with the following parameters: Hg in surficial sediments, pH, distance from point source and water hardness, lake water alkalinity and conductivity, water retention time, size of drainage area and lake surface. A formula which provides the best possible degree of explanation (r2 = 0.78) has been derived. At present there are about 250 lakes 'blacklisted' in Sweden due to high Hg content in fish. Our data show that there are at least 9400 lakes that ought to be 'blacklisted' today. A successful liming operation will alter the chemical conditions in lakes and also decrease the Hg content in fish.

A theory on the mechanisms regulating the bioavailability of mercury in natural waters.

A number of quantifiable properties of natural waters have been used by various scientists to 'explain' the Hg content in fish (e.g. pH, level of bioproduction, humosity, conductivity, calcium content, oxygen conditions, zinc and selenium content). This work presents a theory aimed at providing an explanation of the chemical mechanisms behind many established statistical relationships. The theory focuses on some equilibrium reactions and the causal relationships behind these reactions. The basic concept of the theory is that the activity of Hg(2+) in natural waters is essentially regulated by the activity of S(2-), which, in turn, is strongly affected by pH and redox conditions. Due to protonisation reactions, the S(2-) activity is very low at natural pH levels. The equilibrium between Hg(2+) and HgS(s) is given by the solubility constant Ks = 10(-52). This is an extremely low constant, which indicates that, in the presence of sulphide, essentially all Hg will appear as HgS(s). The Hg(2+) activity, and the Hg content in fish, can be increased if the S(2-) activity is decreased by lowering the pH and/or increasing the redox potential. Besides sulphide there are two other elements with a similar relationship towards Hg; namely, Se and Te (Ks = 10(-58) and Ks = 10(-70), respectively). The Hg(2+) concentration in natural waters varies quite widely, but is often about 5 ng litre(-1). This is a high concentration in these contexts. Such as high concentration can prevail only if the S(2-) (and/or the Se(2-)) activity is very small. In waters where the S(2-) and/or the Se(2-)) activity is high, e.g. from sulphide rocks in the drainage area, or if S(2-) and/or Se(2-) are added to the water, the Hg(2+) activity, and the Hg content in fish, will be effectively reduced.

A blind test of the MOIRA lake model for radiocesium for Lake Uruskul, Russia, contaminated by fallout from the Kyshtym accident in 1957.

This paper presents results of a model-test carried out within the framework of the COMETES project (EU). The tested model is a new lake model for radiocesium to be used within the MOIRA decision support system (DSS; MOIRA and COMETES are acronyms for EU-projects). This model has previously been validated against independent data from many lakes covering a wide domain of lake characteristics and been demonstrated to yield excellent predictive power (see Håkanson, Modelling Radiocesium in Lakes and Coastal Areas. Kluwer, Dordrecht, 2000, 215 pp). However, the model has not been tested before for cases other than those related to the Chernobyl fallout in 1986, nor for lakes from this part of the world (Southern Urals) and nor for situations with such heavy fallout as this. The aims of this work were: (1) to carry out a blind test of the model for the case of continental Lake Uruskul, heavily contaminated with 90Sr and 137Cs as a result of the Kyshtym radiation accident (29 September 1957) in the Southern Urals, Russia, and (2) if these tests gave satisfactory results to reconstruct the radiocesium dynamics for fish, water and sediments in the lake. Can the model provide meaningful predictions in a situation such as this? The answer is yes, although there are reservations due to the scarcity of reliable empirical data. From the modelling calculations, it may be noted that the maximum levels of 137Cs in fish (here 400 g ww goldfish), water and sediments were about 100,000 Bq/kg ww, 600 Bq/l and 30,000 Bq/kg dw, respectively. The values in fish are comparable to or higher than the levels in fish in the cooling pond of the Chernobyl NPP. The model also predicts an interesting seasonal pattern in 137Cs levels in sediments. There is also a characteristic "three phase" development for the 137Cs levels in fish: first an initial stage when the 137Cs concentrations in fish approach a maximum value, then a phase with relatively short ecological half-lives followed by a final phase with long ecological half-lives more or less corresponding to the physical decay of radiocesium.

A mechanistic sub-model predicting the influence of potassium on radiocesium uptake in aquatic biota.

It is often argued that the quality of science is related to the possibilities of making accurate predictions. It has also long been argued that due to the complex nature of ecosystems, it will never be possible to predict important target variables, especially with more comprehensive dynamic models. New results in radioecology have, however, demonstrated that those arguments are no longer valid. The key to the predictive success lies in the structuring of the model. The accident at Chernobyl has, in fact, provided science with an intriguing opportunity to study how the pulse of 137Cs is transported through ecosystem pathways, thus revealing the basic structure of these ecosystems, i.e. which are the key and the less-important pathways. It is paradoxical to conclude that the Chernobyl accident is, perhaps, the most important factor behind the revolution in predictive ecosystem modelling which lies behind the decrease in the uncertainty factor from 10 to 0.25-0.5. The sub-model for the potassium moderator presented in this paper is an example of a mechanistically based sub-model used within the framework of a more comprehensive lake model for 137Cs. The K-moderator presented is derived from the existing knowledge on ion transport in biological membranes and takes into account ion equilibria modelled by the Nernst equation and the uptake kinetics quantified by the Michaelis-Menten model. It provides the type of structure to this overall lake model that helps to explain the excellent predictive power of this model.

A critical review of measures to reduce radioactive doses from drinking water and consumption of freshwater foodstuffs.

Following a radioactive fallout event, there are a number of possible intervention measures to reduce radioactive doses to the public via the surface water pathway. We have critically reviewed the options available to decision-makers in the event of radioactive contamination of surface waters. We believe that the most effective and viable measures to reduce radioactivity in drinking water are those which operate at the water treatment and distribution stage. Intervention measures to reduce concentrations of radioactivity in rivers and reservoirs are expected to be much less viable and efficient at reducing doses via the drinking water pathway. Bans on consumption of freshwater fish can be effective, but there are few viable measures to reduce radioactivity in fish prior to the preparation stage. Lake liming and biomanipulation have been found to be ineffective for radiocaesium, although the addition of potassium to lakewaters appears promising in some situations. Lake liming may be effective in reducing radiostrontium in fish, though this has not, to our knowledge, been tested. De-boning fish contaminated by strontium is probably the most effective food preparation measure, but salting and freezing can also reduce radiocaesium concentrations in fish. The provision of accurate information to the public is highlighted as a key element of countermeasure implementation.

Computerised Decision Support Systems for the management of freshwater radioecological emergencies: assessment of the state-of-the-art with respect to the experiences and needs of end-users.

Assessment of the environmental and radiological consequences of a nuclear accident requires the management of a great deal of data and information as well as the use of predictive models. Computerised Decision Support Systems (CDSS) are essential tools for this kind of complex assessment and for assisting experts with a rational decision process. The present work focuses on the assessment of the main features of selected state-of-the-art CDSS for off-site management of freshwater ecosystems contaminated by radionuclides. This study involved both developers and end-users of the assessed CDSS and was based on practical customisation exercises, installation and application of the decision systems. Potential end-users can benefit from the availability of several ready-to-use CDSS that allow one to run different kinds of models aimed at predicting the behaviour of radionuclides in aquatic ecosystems, evaluating doses to humans, assessing the effectiveness of different kinds of environmental management interventions and ranking these interventions, accounting for their social, economic and environmental impacts. As a result of the present assessment, the importance of CDSS "integration" became apparent: in many circumstances, different CDSS can be used as complementary tools for the decision-making process. The results of this assessment can also be useful for the future development and improvement of the CDSS.

Health impacts of large releases of radionuclides. Transport and processes in freshwater ecosystems.

The partition coefficient (Kd) and the water retention rate (RR) are fundamental components of dynamic, mass-balance models, not just for radionuclides in fresh water but also for contaminants in all aquatic ecosystems. Kd may be regarded as an 'entry gate' and RR an 'exit gate'. Uncertainties in Kd and RR cause uncertainties in model predictions. Uncertainties in important rates for processes within ecosystems (such as sedimentation, diffusion, advection, bio-uptake and excretion) cannot be adequately evaluated when uncertainties exist for Kd and RR. Empirical data show that there may be a variation in Kd of two orders of magnitude with environmental factors such as pH. This is important because Kd regulates the amount of radionuclides in dissolved and particulate phases, and hence also pelagic and benthic transport. Pelagic transport is directly linked to the outflow and retention of substances in the water mass, and thus also to concentrations and ecological effects. There are many approaches for sub-models of Kd and RR. Which provide the best predictive power? This chapter gives a brief overview and discussion of the benefits and drawbacks of different alternatives for Kd and RR within the framework of a lake model for radiocaesium.

Immunotherapy abrogates the generation of eosinophil and neutrophil chemotactic activity during pollen season.

In a group of 40 birch pollen-allergic patients with a history of rhinoconjunctivitis and wheezing during the pollen season, 20 were immunotherapy (IT) treated preseasonally with birch-pollen extract (Pharmacia, Uppsala, Sweden). Blood samples for determination of the levels of heat-labile eosinophil chemotactic activity (HL-ECA), heat-labile neutrophil chemotactic activity (HL-NCA), and heat-stable neutrophil chemotactic activity were collected before the season, at the beginning of the study, at the start of the season, at the peak, at the end, and after the birch-pollen season. The symptoms from rhinoconjunctivitis and airways, peak expiratory flow, and use of medication were recorded throughout the season. Significant increases of HL-ECA and HL-NCA were observed in untreated compared with IT-treated patients at the start of the season (p less than 0.0001 for both activities) and at the peak of the birch-pollen season (p less than 0.0005 and p less than 0.01, respectively). At the end of the season, HL-ECA levels were not significantly different between the patient groups, whereas HL-NCA levels were still higher in untreated patients (p less than 0.005). We conclude that IT completely abrogates the generation of HL-ECA and HL-NCA during a pollen season.

The effect of immunotherapy on eosinophil accumulation and production of eosinophil chemotactic activity in the lung of subjects with asthma during natural pollen exposure.

Two groups of birch pollen--allergic patients with seasonal rhinoconjunctivitis and asthma were followed during two consecutive birch-pollen seasons, one group, N = 10, during a season with high pollen load, and one group, N = 15, during a season of low pollen load. Half the patients were treated with immunotherapy (IT) for 3 and 4 years, respectively. The other half of the patients served as control group (non-IT). Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed once before each season and once during the pollen season. Eosinophil (EOS) numbers in BAL were increased (p less than 0.01) during the season with high pollen load but not in the season with a low pollen load, and this increment was absent in the IT-treated group. Also, the EOS cationic protein levels were raised in the non-IT-treated group during the season with a high pollen load. The levels of EOS and neutrophil chemotactic activity were raised in BAL in both seasons in the non-IT-treated group compared with the IT-treated group (p less than 0.02, p less than 0.003, p less than 0.04, and p less than 0.005 in high- and low-load pollen season, respectively). Serum and BAL eosinophil chemotactic activity (ECA) were positively correlated (p less than 0.001). We conclude that there is an influx of active EOSs into the lung of pollen-allergic patients with asthma during a pollen season, which may be abrogated by IT. Furthermore, the generation of ECA appears to be an extremely sensitive marker of antigenic exposure, and the potent inhibition of the generation of ECA by IT may provide a clue as to the mechanism of this treatment.