Adjuvant effect of inhaled particulate matter containing free radicals following house-dust mite induction of asthma in mice.

INTRODUCTION: Exposures to particulate matter (PM) from combustion sources can exacerbate preexisting asthma. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which PM promotes the exacerbation of asthma remain elusive. We used a house dust mite (HDM)-induced mouse model of asthma to test the hypothesis that inhaled DCB230, which are PM containing environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs), will aggravate asthmatic responses. METHODS: Groups of 8-10-week-old C57BL/6 male mice were exposed to either air or DCB230 aerosols at a concentration of 1.5 mg/m3 4 h/day for 10 days with or without prior HDM-induction of asthma. RESULTS: Aerosolized DCB230 particles formed small aggregates (30-150 nm). Mice exposed to DCB230 alone showed significantly reduced lung tidal volume, overexpression of the Muc5ac gene, and dysregulation of 4 inflammation related genes, Ccl11, Ccl24, Il-10, and Tpsb2. This suggests DCB230 particles interacted with the lung epithelium inducing mucous hypersecretion and restricting lung volume. In addition to reduced lung tidal volume, compared to respective controls, the HDM + DCB230-exposed group exhibited significantly increased lung tissue damping and up-regulated expression of Muc5ac, indicating that in this model, mucous hypersecretion may be central to pulmonary dysfunction. This group also showed augmented lung eosinophilic inflammation accompanied by an up-regulation of 36 asthma related genes. Twelve of these genes are part of IL-17 signaling, suggesting that this pathway is critical for DCB230 induced toxicity and adjuvant effects in lungs previously exposed to HDM. CONCLUSION: Our data indicate that inhaled DCB230 can act as an adjuvant, exacerbating asthma through IL-17-mediated responses in a HDM mouse model.

Inhalation of particulate matter containing free radicals leads to decreased vascular responsiveness associated with an altered pulmonary function.

Airborne particulate matter (PM) is associated with an increased risk for cardiovascular diseases. Although the goal of thermal remediation is to eliminate organic wastes through combustion, when incomplete combustion occurs, organics chemisorb to transition metals to generate PM-containing environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs). Similar EPFR species have been detected in PM found in diesel and gasoline exhaust, woodsmoke, and urban air. Prior in vivo studies demonstrated that EPFRs reduce cardiac function secondary to elevations in pulmonary arterial pressures. In vitro studies showed that EPFRs increase ROS and cytokines in pulmonary epithelial cells. We thus hypothesized that EPFR inhalation would promote lung inflammation and oxidative stress, leading to systemic inflammation, vascular endothelial injury, and a decline in vascular function. Mice were exposed to EPFRs for either 4 h or for 4 h/day for 10 days and lung and vascular function were assessed. After a 4-h exposure, plasma nitric oxide (NO) was reduced while endothelin-1 (ET-1) was increased, however lung function was not altered. After 10 day, plasma NO and ET-1 levels were again altered and lung tidal volume was reduced. These time course studies suggested the vasculature may be an early target of injury. To test this hypothesis, an intermediate time point of 3 days was selected. Though the mice exhibited no marked inflammation in either the lung or the blood, we did note significantly reduced endothelial function concurrent with a reduction in lung tidal volume and an elevation in annexin V protein levels in the lung. Although vascular dysfunction was not dependent upon inflammation, it may be associated with an injury at the air-blood interface. Gene expression analysis suggested roles for oxidative stress and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr) signaling. Studies probing the relationship between pulmonary oxidative stress and AhR signaling at the air-blood interface with vascular dysfunction seem warranted.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Particulate matter (PM) resulting from the combustion of organic matter is known to contribute to cardiopulmonary disease. Despite hypotheses that cardiovascular dysfunction occurring after PM exposures is secondary to lung or systemic inflammation, these studies investigating exposures to PM-containing environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) demonstrate that cardiovascular dysfunction precedes pulmonary inflammation. The cardiopulmonary health consequences of EPFRs have yet to be thoroughly evaluated, especially in healthy, adult mice. Our data suggest the vasculature as a direct target of PM exposure, and our studies aimed to elucidate the mechanisms contributing to EPFR-induced vascular dysfunction.

Interleukin-4 supplementation improves the pathophysiology of hypertension in response to placental ischemia in RUPP rats.

Preeclampsia (PE) is characterized by chronic inflammation and elevated agonistic autoantibodies to the angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1-AA), endothelin-1, and uterine artery resistance index (UARI) during pregnancy. Previous studies report an imbalance among immune cells, with T-helper type 2 (Th2) cells being decreased during PE. We hypothesized that interleukin-4 (IL-4) would increase Th2 cells and improve the pathophysiology in response to placental ischemia during pregnancy. IL-4 (600 ng/day) was administered via osmotic minipump on gestational day 14 to normal pregnant (NP) and reduced uterine perfusion pressure (RUPP) rats. Carotid catheters were inserted, and Doppler ultrasound was performed on gestational day 18. Blood pressure (mean arterial pressure), TNF-α, IL-6, AT1-AA, natural killer cells, Th2 cells, and B cells were measured on gestational day 19. Mean arterial pressure was 97 ± 2 mmHg in NP ( n = 9), 101 ± 3 mmHg in IL-4-treated NP ( n = 14), and 137 ± 4 mmHg in RUPP ( n = 8) rats and improved to 108 ± 3 mmHg in IL-4-treated RUPP rats ( n = 17) ( P < 0.05). UARI was 0.5 ± 0.03 in NP and 0.8 in RUPP rats and normalized to 0.5 in IL-4-treated RUPP rats ( P < 0.05). Plasma nitrate-nitrite levels increased in IL-4-treated RUPP rats, while placental preproendothelin-1 expression, plasma TNF-α and IL-6, and AT1-AA decreased in IL-4-treated RUPP rats compared with untreated RUPP rats ( P < 0.05). Circulating B cells and placental cytolytic natural killer cells decreased after IL-4 administration, while Th2 cells increased in IL-4-treated RUPP compared with untreated RUPP rats. This study illustrates that IL-4 decreased inflammation and improved Th2 numbers in RUPP rats and, ultimately, improved hypertension in response to placental ischemia during pregnancy.

Identifying immune mechanisms mediating the hypertension during preeclampsia.

Preeclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy-associated disorder that affects 5-8% of pregnancies and is a major cause of maternal, fetal, and neonatal morbidity and mortality. Hallmark characteristics of PE are new onset hypertension after 20 wk gestation with or without proteinuria, chronic immune activation, fetal growth restriction, and maternal endothelial dysfunction. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms that lead to the development of PE are poorly understood. Recent data from studies of both clinical and animal models demonstrate an imbalance in the subpopulations of CD4+ T cells and a role for these cells as mediators of inflammation and hypertension during pregnancy. Specifically, it has been proposed that the imbalance between two CD4+ T cell subtypes, regulatory T cells (Tregs) and T-helper 17 cells (Th17s), is involved in the pathophysiology of PE. Studies from our laboratory highlighting how this imbalance contributes to vasoactive factors, endothelial dysfunction, and hypertension during pregnancy will be discussed in this review. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to highlight hypertensive mechanisms stimulated by inflammatory factors in response to placental ischemia, thereby elucidating a role.

Vitamin D supplementation improves pathophysiology in a rat model of preeclampsia.

Deficiency of vitamin D (VD) is associated with preeclampsia (PE), a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy characterized by proinflammatory immune activation. We sought to determine whether VD supplementation would reduce the pathophysiology and hypertension associated with the reduced uterine perfusion pressure (RUPP) rat model of PE. Normal pregnant (NP) and RUPP rats were supplemented with VD2 or VD3 (270 IU and 15 IU/day, respectively) on gestation days 14-18 and mean arterial pressures (MAPs) measured on day 19. MAP increased in RUPP to 123 ± 2 mmHg compared with 102 ± 3 mmHg in NP and decreased to 113 ± 3 mmHg with VD2 and 115 ± 3 mmHg with VD3 in RUPP rats. Circulating CD4+ T cells increased in RUPP to 7.90 ± 1.36% lymphocytes compared with 2.04 ± 0.67% in NP but was lowered to 0.90 ± 0.19% with VD2 and 4.26 ± 1.55% with VD3 in RUPP rats. AT1-AA, measured by chronotropic assay, decreased from 19.5 ± 0.4 bpm in RUPPs to 8.3 ± 0.5 bpm with VD2 and to 15.4 ± 0.7 bpm with VD3. Renal cortex endothelin-1 (ET-1) expression was increased in RUPP rats (11.6 ± 2.1-fold change from NP) and decreased with both VD2 (3.3 ± 1.1-fold) and VD3 (3.1 ± 0.6-fold) supplementation in RUPP rats. Plasma-soluble FMS-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) was also reduced to 74.2 ± 6.6 pg/ml in VD2-treated and 91.0 ± 16.1 pg/ml in VD3-treated RUPP rats compared with 132.7 ± 19.9 pg/ml in RUPP rats. VD treatment reduced CD4+ T cells, AT1-AA, ET-1, sFlt-1, and blood pressure in the RUPP rat model of PE and could be an avenue to improve treatment of hypertension in response to placental ischemia.

The role of inflammation in the pathology of preeclampsia.

Preeclampsia (PE) affects 5-7% of all pregnancies in the United States and is the leading cause of maternal and prenatal morbidity. PE is associated with hypertension after week 20 of gestation, decreased renal function and small-for-gestational-age babies. Women with PE exhibit chronic inflammation and production of autoantibodies. It is hypothesized that during PE, placental ischaemia occurs as a result of shallow trophoblast invasion which is associated with an immune imbalance where pro-inflammatory CD4(+) T-cells are increased and T regulatory cells (Tregs) are decreased. This imbalance leads to chronic inflammation characterized by oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory cytokines and autoantibodies. Studies conducted in our laboratory have demonstrated the importance of this immune imbalance in causing hypertension in response to placental ischaemia in pregnant rats. These studies confirm that increased CD4(+) T-cells and decreased Tregs during pregnancy leads to elevated inflammatory cytokines, endothelin (ET-1), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and agonistic autoantibodies to the angiotensin II (Ang II), type 1 receptor (AT1-AA). All of these factors taken together play an important role in increasing the blood pressure during pregnancy. Specifically, this review focuses on the decrease in Tregs, and their associated regulatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10, which is seen in response to placental ischaemia during pregnancy. This study will also examine the effect of regulatory immune cell repopulation on the pathophysiology of PE. These studies show that restoring the balance of the immune system through increasing Tregs, either by adoptive transfer or by infusing IL-10, reduces the blood pressure and pathophysiology associated with placental ischaemia in pregnant rats.

Placental Ischemia and Resultant Phenotype in Animal Models of Preeclampsia.

Preeclampsia is new onset (or worsening of preexisting) hypertension that occurs during pregnancy. It is accompanied by chronic inflammation, intrauterine growth restriction, elevated anti-angiogenic factors, and can occur with or without proteinuria. Although the exact etiology is unknown, it is thought that preeclampsia begins early in gestation with reduced uterine spiral artery remodeling leading to decreased vasculogenesis of the placenta as the pregnancy progresses. Soluble factors, stimulated by the ischemic placenta, shower the maternal vascular endothelium and are thought to cause endothelial dysfunction and to contribute to the development of hypertension during pregnancy. Due to the difficulty in studying such soluble factors in pregnant women, various animal models have been designed. Studies from these models have contributed to a better understanding of how factors released in response to placental ischemia may lead to increased blood pressure and reduced fetal weight during pregnancy. This review will highlight various animal models and the major findings indicating the importance of placental ischemia to lead to the pathophysiology observed in preeclamptic patients.

Blockade of CD40 ligand for intercellular communication reduces hypertension, placental oxidative stress, and AT1-AA in response to adoptive transfer of CD4+ T lymphocytes from RUPP rats.

Preeclampsia (PE) is associated with altered immune activation during pregnancy. We have previously shown that adoptive transfer of CD4(+) T cells from the reduced uterine perfusion pressure (RUPP) rat model of PE increases blood pressure, oxidative stress (ROS), and inflammation in normal pregnant recipient rats. The objective of this study was to determine if blockade of communication via the CD40-CD40 ligand (CD40L) interaction between placental ischemia-induced CD4(+) T cells with endogenous normal pregnant (NP) cells would improve pathophysiology that was previously observed in NP recipient rats of RUPP CD4(+) T cells. Splenic CD4(+) T lymphocytes were magnetically separated, incubated with 2.5 µg/ml anti-CD40 ligand (αCD40L) overnight, and transferred into NP rats on day 12 of gestation (NP+RUPP CD4(+) T+anti-CD40L). On day 19 of gestation, blood pressure (MAP), blood, and tissues were collected. MAP was 99 ± 2 in NP (n = 13), 116 ± 4 in NP+RUPP CD4(+) T cells (n = 7; P < 0.01); MAP only increased to 104 ± 2 in NP+RUPP CD4(+) T cells+CD40L (n = 24) (P < 0.05 vs. NP+RUPP CD4(+) T cells). Mechanisms of hypertension in response to RUPP CD4(+) T cells include endothelin-1 (ET-1), ROS, and angiotensin II type I receptor (AT1-AA) were analyzed. Inhibition of CD40L binding reduced placental ET-1 to 2.3-fold above NP rats and normalized placental ROS from 318.6 ± 89 in NP+RUPP CD4(+) T cells (P < 0.05) to 118.7 ± 24 in NP+RUPP CD4(+) T+anti-CD40L (P < 0.05). AT1-AA was also normalized with inhibition of CD40L. These data suggest that placental ischemia-induced T-cell communication via the CD40L is one important mechanism leading to much of the pathophysiology of PE.

An increased population of regulatory T cells improves the pathophysiology of placental ischemia in a rat model of preeclampsia.

The reduced uterine perfusion pressure (RUPP) rat model of preeclampsia exhibits much of the pathology characterizing this disease, such as hypertension, inflammation, suppressed regulatory T cells (TRegs), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and autoantibodies to the ANG II type I receptor (AT1-AA) during pregnancy. The objective of this study was to determine whether supplementation of normal pregnant (NP) TRegs into RUPP rats would attenuate the pathophysiology associated with preeclampsia during pregnancy. CD4(+)/CD25(+) T cells were isolated from spleens of NP and RUPP rats, cultured, and injected into gestation day (GD) 12 normal pregnant rats that underwent the RUPP procedure on GD 14. On GD 1, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was recorded, and blood and tissues were collected for analysis. One-way ANOVA was used for statistical analysis. MAP increased from 99 ± 2 mmHg in NP (n = 12) to 127 ± 2 mmHg in RUPP (n = 21) but decreased to 118 ± 2 mmHg in RUPP+NP TRegs (n = 17). Circulating IL-6 and IL-10 were not significantly changed, while circulating TNF-α and IL-17 were significantly decreased after supplementation of TRegs. Placental and renal ROS were 339 ± 58.7 and 603 ± 88.1 RLU·min(-1)·mg(-1) in RUPP and significantly decreased to 178 ± 27.8 and 171 ± 55.6 RLU·min(-1)·mg(-1), respectively, in RUPP+NP TRegs; AT1-AA was 17.81 ± 1.1 beats per minute (bpm) in RUPP but was attenuated to 0.50 ± 0.3 bpm with NP TRegs. This study demonstrates that NP TRegs can significantly improve inflammatory mediators, such as IL-17, TNF-α, and AT1-AA, which have been shown to increase blood pressure during pregnancy.

Inhalation of particulate matter containing environmentally persistent free radicals induces endothelial dysfunction mediated via AhR activation at the air-blood interface.

Particulate matter (PM) containing environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFR) is formed by the incomplete combustion of organic wastes, resulting in the chemisorption of pollutants to the surface of PM containing redox-active transition metals. In prior studies in mice, EPFR inhalation impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation. These findings were associated with aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation in the alveolar type-II (AT-II) cells that form the air-blood interface in the lung. We thus hypothesized that AhR activation in AT-II cells promotes the systemic release of mediators that promote endothelium dysfunction peripheral to the lung. To test our hypothesis, we knocked down AhR in AT-II cells of male and female mice and exposed them to 280 µg/m3 EPFR lo (2.7e + 16 radicals/g) or EPFR (5.5e + 17 radicals/g) compared with filtered air for 4 h/day for 1 day or 5 days. AT-II-AhR activation-induced EPFR-mediated endothelial dysfunction, reducing endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation by 59%, and eNOS expression by 50%. It also increased endothelin-1 mRNA levels in the lungs and peptide levels in the plasma in a paracrine fashion, along with soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and iNOS mRNA expression, possibly via NF-kB activation. Finally, AhR-dependent increases in antioxidant response signaling, coupled to increased levels of 3-nitrotyrosine in the lungs of EPFR-exposed littermate control but not AT-II AhR KO mice suggested that ATII-specific AhR activation promotes oxidative and nitrative stress. Thus, AhR activation at the air-blood interface mediates endothelial dysfunction observed peripheral to the lung, potentially via release of systemic mediators.

A mutation in the start codon of γ-crystallin D leads to nuclear cataracts in the Dahl SS/Jr-Ctr strain.

Cataracts are a major cause of blindness. The most common forms of cataracts are age- and UV-related and develop mostly in the elderly, while congenital cataracts appear at birth or in early childhood. The Dahl salt-sensitive (SS/Jr) rat is an extensively used model of salt-sensitive hypertension that exhibits concomitant renal disease. In the mid-1980s, cataracts appeared in a few animals in the Dahl S colony, presumably the result of a spontaneous mutation. The mutation was fixed and bred to establish the SS/Jr-Ctr substrain. The SS/Jr-Ctr substrain has been used exclusively by a single investigator to study the role of steroids and hypertension. Using a classical positional cloning approach, we localized the cataract gene with high resolution to a less than 1-Mbp region on chromosome 9 using an F1(SS/Jr-Ctr × SHR) × SHR backcross population. The 1-Mbp region contained only 13 genes, including 4 genes from the γ-crystallins (Cryg) gene family, which are known to play a role in cataract formation. All of the γ-crystallins were sequenced and a novel point mutation in the start codon (ATG → GTG) of the Crygd gene was identified. This led to the complete absence of the CRYGD protein in the eyes of the SS/Jr-Ctr strain. In summary, the identification of the genetic cause in this novel cataract model may provide an opportunity to better understand the development of cataracts, particularly in the context of hypertension.

Environmentally persistent free radicals: Methods for combustion generation, whole-body inhalation and assessing cardiopulmonary consequences.

Particulate matter (PM) containing environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) results from the incomplete combustion of organic wastes which chemisorb to transition metals. This process generates a particle-pollutant complex that continuously redox cycles to produce reactive oxygen species. EPFRs are well characterized, but their cardiopulmonary effects remain unknown. This publication provides a detailed approach to evaluating these effects and demonstrates the impact that EPFRs have on the lungs and vasculature. Combustion-derived EPFRs were generated (EPFR lo: 2.1e-16 radical/g, EPFR hi: 5.5e-17 radical/g), characterized, and verified as representative of those found in urban areas. Dry particle aerosolization and whole-body inhalation were established for rodent exposures. To verify that these particles and exposures recapitulate findings relevant to known PM-induced cardiopulmonary effects, male C57BL6 mice were exposed to filtered air, ∼280 µg/m3 EPFR lo or EPFR hi for 4 h/d for 5 consecutive days. Compared to filtered air, pulmonary resistance was increased in mice exposed to EPFR hi. Mice exposed to EPFR hi also exhibited increased plasma endothelin-1 (44.6 vs 30.6 pg/mL) and reduced nitric oxide (137 nM vs 236 nM), suggesting vascular dysfunction. Assessment of vascular response demonstrated an impairment in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, with maximum relaxation decreased from 80% to 62% in filtered air vs EPFR hi exposed mice. Gene expression analysis highlighted fold changes in aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and antioxidant response genes including increases in lung Cyp1a1 (8.7 fold), Cyp1b1 (9 fold), Aldh3a1 (1.7 fold) and Nqo1 (2.4 fold) and Gclc (1.3 fold), and in aortic Cyp1a1 (5.3 fold) in mice exposed to EPFR hi vs filtered air. We then determined that lung AT2 cells were the predominate locus for AhR activation. Together, these data suggest the lung and vasculature as particular targets for the health impacts of EPFRs and demonstrate the importance of additional studies investigating the cardiopulmonary effects of EPFRs.

Increased susceptibility to kidney injury by transfer of genomic segment from SHR onto Dahl S genetic background.

The Dahl salt-sensitive (S) rat is a widely studied model of salt-sensitive hypertension and develops proteinuria, glomerulosclerosis, and renal interstitial fibrosis. An earlier genetic analysis using a population derived from the S and spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) identified eight genomic regions linked to renal injury in the S rat and one protective locus on chromosome 11. The "protective" locus in the S rat was replaced with the SHR genomic segment conferring "susceptibility" to kidney injury. The progression of kidney injury in the S.SHR(11) congenic strain was characterized in the present study. Groups of S and S.SHR(11) rats were followed for 12 wk on either a low-salt (0.3% NaCl) or high-salt (2% NaCl) diet. By week 12 (low-salt), S.SHR(11) demonstrated a significant decline in kidney function compared with the S. Blood pressure was significantly elevated in both strains on high salt. Despite similar blood pressure, the S.SHR(11) exhibited a more significant decline in kidney function compared with the S. The decline in S.SHR(11) kidney function was associated with more severe kidney injury including tubular loss, immune cell infiltration, and tubulointerstitial fibrosis compared with the S. Most prominently, the S.SHR(11) exhibited a high degree of medullary fibrosis and a significant increase in renal vascular medial hypertrophy. In summary, genetic modification of the S rat generated a model of accelerated renal disease that may provide a better system to study progression to renal failure as well as lead to the identification of genetic variants involved in kidney injury.

Placental CD4+ T cells from preeclamptic patients cause autoantibodies to the angiotensin II type I receptor and hypertension in a pregnant rat model of preeclampsia.

Preeclampsia (PE) is a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy associated with activated CD4+ T cells and autoantibodies to angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1-AA). We have previously shown that CD4+ T cells isolated from women with PE cause hypertension, increased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), endothelin-1, and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) when injected into pregnant nude-athymic rats compared to CD4+ T cells from normal pregnant (NP) women. However, the role of PE CD4+ T cells to cause AT1-AA as a mechanism of hypertension is not known. Aim: Our goal was to determine if PE CD4+ T cells stimulate AT1-AA in pregnant nude-athymic rats. CD4+ T cells were isolated from human NP and PE placentasand injected into nude-athymic rats on gestational day (GD) 12. In order to examine the role of the PE CD4+ T cells to stimulate B cell secretion of AT1-AA, a subset of the rats receiving PE CD4+ T cells were treated with rituximab on GD 14 or anti-CD40 ligand (anti-CD40L) on GD 12. On GD 19, mean arterial pressure (MAP) and tissues were obtained MAP [114 ± 1 mmHg (n = 9)] and AT1-AA [19.8 ± 0.9 beats per minute (bpm, n = 4)] were increased in NP nude + PE CD4+ T cells compared to NP nude + NP CD4+ T cells [98 ± 2 mmHg (n = 7, P < 0.05) and 1.3 ± 0.9 bpm (n = 5, P < 0.05)]. Rituximab (103 ± 2 mmHg, n = 3, P < 0.05) and anti-CD40L (102 ± 1 mmHg, n = 3, P < 0.05) lowered MAP compared to NP nude + PE CD4+ T cells. Circulating a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) and placental angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) activity was increased in response to PE CD4+ T cells. These results show that placental CD4+ T cells play an important role in the pathophysiology of PE, by activating B cells secreting AT1-AA to cause hypertension during pregnancy.

Particulate matter air pollutants and cardiovascular disease: Strategies for intervention.

Air pollution is consistently linked with elevations in cardiovascular disease (CVD) and CVD-related mortality. Particulate matter (PM) is a critical factor in air pollution-associated CVD. PM forms in the air during the combustion of fuels as solid particles and liquid droplets and the sources of airborne PM range from dust and dirt to soot and smoke. The health impacts of PM inhalation are well documented. In the US, where CVD is already the leading cause of death, it is estimated that PM2.5 (PM < 2.5 µm in size) is responsible for nearly 200,000 premature deaths annually. Despite the public health data, definitive mechanisms underlying PM-associated CVD are elusive. However, evidence to-date implicates mechanisms involving oxidative stress, inflammation, metabolic dysfunction and dyslipidemia, contributing to vascular dysfunction and atherosclerosis, along with autonomic dysfunction and hypertension. For the benefit of susceptible individuals and individuals who live in areas where PM levels exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standard, interventional strategies for mitigating PM-associated CVD are necessary. This review will highlight current state of knowledge with respect to mechanisms for PM-dependent CVD. Based upon these mechanisms, strategies for intervention will be outlined. Citing data from animal models and human subjects, these highlighted strategies include: 1) antioxidants, such as vitamins E and C, carnosine, sulforaphane and resveratrol, to reduce oxidative stress and systemic inflammation; 2) omega-3 fatty acids, to inhibit inflammation and autonomic dysfunction; 3) statins, to decrease cholesterol accumulation and inflammation; 4) melatonin, to regulate the immune-pineal axis and 5) metformin, to address PM-associated metabolic dysfunction. Each of these will be discussed with respect to its potential role in limiting PM-associated CVD.

Mechanistic studies of cytotoxic activity of the mesoionic compound MIH 2.4Bl in MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

In the present study, the cytotoxic effects of a 1,3-thiazolium-5-thiolate derivative of a mesoionic compound, MIH 2.4Bl, were assessed in the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. The cytotoxic effects of MIH 2.4Bl were determined using a crystal violet assay. Using a dose-response curve, the IC50 value of MIH 2.4Bl was determined to be 45.8±0.8 µM. Additionally, the effects of MIH 2.4Bl on mitochondrial respiration were characterized using oxygen consumption rate analysis. Treating MCF-7 cells with increasing concentrations of MIH 2.4Bl resulted in a significant reduction in all mitochondrial respiratory parameters compared with the control cells, indicative of an overall decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential. The induction of autophagy by MIH 2.4Bl was also examined by measuring changes in the expression of protein markers of autophagy. As shown by western blot analysis, treatment of MCF-7 cells with MIH 2.4Bl resulted in increased protein expression levels of Beclin-1 and ATG5, as well as an increase in the microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B light chain 3B (LC3B)-II to LC3B-I ratio compared with the control cells. Microarray analysis of changes in gene expression following MIH 2.4Bl treatment demonstrated 3,659 genes exhibited a fold-change ≥2. Among these genes, 779 were up-regulated, and 2,880 were down-regulated in cells treated with MIH 2.4Bl compared with the control cells. Based on the identity of the transcripts and fold-change of expression, six genes were selected for verification by reverse transcription-quantitative (RT-q)PCR; activating transcription factor 3, acidic repeat-containing protein, heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor, regulator of G-protein signaling 2, Dickkopf WNT signaling pathway inhibitor 1 and adhesion molecule with Ig like domain 2. The results of RT-qPCR analysis of RNA isolated from control and MIH 2.4Bl treated cells were consistent with the expression changes identified by microarray analysis. Together, these results suggest that MIH 2.4Bl may be a promising candidate for treating breast cancer and warrants further in vitro and in vivo investigation.

Cytotoxic Activity of the Mesoionic Compound MIH 2.4Bl in Breast Cancer Cell Lines.

In this work, we report the synthesis of a new 1,3-thiazolium-5-thiolate derivative of a mesoionic compound (MIH 2.4Bl) and the characterization of its selective cytotoxicity on a panel of breast cancer cells lines. The cytotoxic effect of MIH 2.4Bl on breast cancer cell lines was determined by XTT and crystal violet assays, flow cytometry analysis, electron microscopy characterization, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) nick end labeling (TUNEL) apoptosis assays. As determined using XTT cell growth and survival assays, MIH 2.4Bl exhibited growth inhibition activity on most breast cancer cell lines tested, compared with normal human mammary epithelial cells. Three breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7, T-47D, and ZR-75-1) showed a more potent sensitivity index to growth inhibition by MIH 2.4Bl than the other breast cancer cell lines. Interestingly, these 3 cell lines were derived from tumors of Luminal A origin and have ER (estrogen receptor), PR (progesterone receptor), and HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) positive expression. Additional analysis of cytotoxicity mediated by MIH 2.4Bl was performed using the MCF-7 cell line. MCF-7 cells displayed both time- and dose-dependent decreases in cell growth and survival, with a maximum cytotoxic effect observed at 72 and 96 hours. The MCF-7 cells were also characterized for cell cycle changes upon treatment with MIH 2.4Bl. Using flow cytometry analysis of cell cycle distribution, a treatment-dependent effect was observed; treatment of cells with MIH 2.4Bl increased the G2/M population to 34.2% compared with 0.1% in untreated (control) cells. Ultrastructural analysis of MFC-7 cells treated with MIH 2.4Bl at 2 different concentrations (37.5 and 75 µM) was performed by transmission electron microscopy. Cells treated with 37.5 µM MIH 2.4Bl showed morphologic changes beginning at 6 hours after treatment, while cells treated with 75 µM showed changes beginning at 3 hours after treatment. These changes were characterized by an alteration of nuclear morphology and mitochondrial degeneration consistent with apoptotic cell death. Results of a TUNEL assay performed on cells treated for 96 hours with MIH 2.4Bl supported the observation of apoptosis. Together, these results suggest that MIH 2.4Bl is a promising candidate for treating breast cancer and support further in vitro and in vivo investigation.

Placental CD4+ T cells isolated from preeclamptic women cause preeclampsia-like symptoms in pregnant nude-athymic rats.

Preeclampsia (PE), new onset hypertension during pregnancy, is associated with a proinflammatory profile compared to normal pregnancy (NP). We hypothesize that CD4+ T cells from PE patient placentas cause PE symptoms during pregnancy compared to those from NP women. CD4+ T cells were isolated from placentas of PE and NP women using anti-CD4 magnetic separation, cultured in TexMACS medium at 37 °C in 5% CO2, and injected intraperitoneally into nude-athymic rats on day 12 of gestation. On day 18, carotid catheters were implanted and on day 19, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was measured and blood and tissues were collected. MAP was 125 ±â€¯2 mmHg in rats with NP CD4+ T cells but increased to 140 ±â€¯4 mmHg in rats with PE CD4+ T cells. Significant differences in circulating cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-17 (IL-17) and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) were found with PE vs NP CD4+ T cells (TNF-α- PE = 167.4 pg/mL, NP = 79.4 pg/mL; IL-17-PE = 7.054 pg/mL, NP = 3.185 pg/mL; sFlt-1-PE = 90.7 pg/mL, NP = 58.2 pg/mL. In addition, renal cortical endothelin-1 (ET-1) mRNA expression increased 4.5 fold in rats with PE CD4+ T cells versus those receiving to NP CD4+ T cells. These data indicate an important role for placental PE CD4+ T cells to cause many characteristics of PE during pregnancy.

Particulate matter containing environmentally persistent free radicals induces AhR-dependent cytokine and reactive oxygen species production in human bronchial epithelial cells.

Particulate matter (PM) is emitted during the combustion of fuels and wastes. PM exposure exacerbates pulmonary diseases, and the mechanism may involve oxidative stress. At lower combustion temperatures such as occurs in the cool zone of a flame, aromatic compounds chemisorb to the surface of metal-oxide-containing PM, resulting in the formation of surface-stabilized environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFR). Prior studies showed that PM-containing EPFR redox cycle to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), and after inhalation, EPFR induce pulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress. Our objective was to elucidate mechanisms linking EPFR-induced oxidant injury with increased cytokine production by pulmonary epithelial cells. We thus treated human bronchial epithelial cells with EPFR at sub-toxic doses and measured ROS and cytokine production. To assess aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activity, cells were transfected with a luciferase reporter for xenobiotic response element activation. To test whether cytokine production was dependent upon AhR activation or oxidative stress, some cells were co-treated with an antioxidant or an AhR antagonist. EPFR increased IL-6 release in an ROS and AhR- and oxidant-dependent manner. Moreover, EPFR induced an AhR activation that was dependent upon oxidant production, since antioxidant co-treatment blocked AhR activation. On the other hand, EPFR treatment increased a cellular ROS production that was at least partially attenuated by AhR knockdown using siRNA. While AhR activation was correlated with an increased expression of oxidant-producing enzymes like cytochrome P450 CYP1A1, it is possible that AhR activation is both a cause and effect of EPFR-induced ROS. Finally, lipid oxidation products also induced AhR activation. ROS-dependent AhR activation may be a mechanism for altered epithelial cell responses after EPFR exposure, potentially via formation of bioactive lipid or protein oxidation products.

Proliferation of endogenous regulatory T cells improve the pathophysiology associated with placental ischaemia of pregnancy.

PROBLEM: Preeclampsia (PE) is associated with inflammation and decreased Treg cells and IL-10. The reduced uterine perfusion pressure (RUPP) rat model of PE exhibits these characteristics, and we hypothesized that induction of endogenous Tregs by a specific stimulus (CD28 superagonistic monoclonal antibody) would reduce inflammation, vasoactive factors, and hypertension in RUPP rats. METHOD OF STUDY: RUPP was performed at gestation day (GD) 14; CD28 superagonist was administered intraperitoneally GD15; GD18 carotid catheters were inserted, and GD19 MAP and pup weight, blood, and tissues were collected. RESULTS: MAP (mmHg) in NP rats was 99±5 and 122±2 in RUPPs and was 111±1 mmHg in RUPP+SA. Circulating Tregs were 6±2% in NP rats and 0.77±0.49% in RUPP rats but increased to 11± 3% in RUPP+SA rats. Circulating IL-6 and IL-2 were decreased while IL-10 and TGF-B were significantly increased in RUPP+SA compared to RUPP controls. Vasoactive pathways such as ET-1, AT1-AA, and ROS were all reduced in RUPP+SA compared to RUPP. Pup weight was 2.4±0.05 mg in NP and 1.94±0.062 mg in RUPP and increased to 2.1± 0.05 mg in RUPP+SA. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that stimulating endogenous Tregs lower factors causing hypertension and can improve fetal weight in response to PE.