The multifaceted life of macrophages in white adipose tissue: Immune shift couples with metabolic switch.

White adipose tissue (WAT) is a vital endocrine organ that regulates energy balance and metabolic homeostasis. In addition to fat cells, WAT harbors macrophages with distinct phenotypes that play crucial roles in immunity and metabolism. Nutrient demands cause macrophages to accumulate in WAT niches, where they remodel the microenvironment and produce beneficial or detrimental effects on systemic metabolism. Given the abundance of macrophages in WAT, this review summarizes the heterogeneity of WAT macrophages in physiological and pathological conditions, including their alterations in quantity, phenotypes, characteristics, and functions during WAT growth and development, as well as healthy or unhealthy expansion. We will discuss the interactions of macrophages with other cell partners in WAT including adipose stem cells, adipocytes, and T cells in the context of various microenvironment niches in lean or obese condition. Finally, we highlight how adipose tissue macrophages merge immunity and metabolic changes to govern energy balance for the organism.

Global SUMOylation in mouse oocytes maintains oocyte identity and regulates chromatin remodeling and transcriptional silencing at the end of folliculogenesis.

Meiotically competent oocytes in mammals undergo cyclic development during folliculogenesis. Oocytes within ovarian follicles are transcriptionally active, producing and storing transcripts required for oocyte growth, somatic cell communication and early embryogenesis. Transcription ceases as oocytes transition from growth to maturation and does not resume until zygotic genome activation. Although SUMOylation, a post-translational modification, plays multifaceted roles in transcriptional regulation, its involvement during oocyte development remains poorly understood. In this study, we generated an oocyte-specific knockout of Ube2i, encoding the SUMO E2 enzyme UBE2I, using Zp3-cre+ to determine how loss of oocyte SUMOylation during folliculogenesis affects oocyte development. Ube2i Zp3-cre+ female knockout mice were sterile, with oocyte defects in meiotic competence, spindle architecture and chromosome alignment, and a premature arrest in metaphase I. Additionally, fully grown Ube2i Zp3-cre+ oocytes exhibited sustained transcriptional activity but downregulated maternal effect genes and prematurely activated genes and retrotransposons typically associated with zygotic genome activation. These findings demonstrate that UBE2I is required for the acquisition of key hallmarks of oocyte development during folliculogenesis, and highlight UBE2I as a previously unreported orchestrator of transcriptional regulation in mouse oocytes.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology CXIII: Nuclear Receptor Superfamily-Update 2023.

The NR superfamily comprises 48 transcription factors in humans that control a plethora of gene network programs involved in a wide range of physiologic processes. This review will summarize and discuss recent progress in NR biology and drug development derived from integrating various approaches, including biophysical techniques, structural studies, and translational investigation. We also highlight how defective NR signaling results in various diseases and disorders and how NRs can be targeted for therapeutic intervention via modulation via binding to synthetic lipophilic ligands. Furthermore, we also review recent studies that improved our understanding of NR structure and signaling. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Nuclear receptors (NRs) are ligand-regulated transcription factors that are critical regulators of myriad physiological processes. NRs serve as receptors for an array of drugs, and in this review, we provide an update on recent research into the roles of these drug targets.

The bile acid induced hepatokine orosomucoid suppresses adipocyte differentiation.

Bile acids have recently emerged as key metabolic hormones with beneficial impacts in multiple metabolic diseases. We previously discovered that hepatic bile acid overload distally modulates glucose and fatty acid metabolism in adipose tissues to exert anti-obesity effects. However, the detailed mechanisms that explain the salutary effects of serum bile acid elevation remain unclear. Here, proteomic profiling identified a new hepatokine, Orosomucoid (ORM) that governs liver-adipose tissue crosstalk. Hepatic ORMs were highly induced by both genetic and dietary bile acid overload. To address the direct metabolic effects of ORM, purified ORM proteins were administered during adipogenic differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells and mouse stromal vascular fibroblasts. ORM suppressed adipocyte differentiation and strongly inhibited gene expression of adipogenic transcription factors such as C/EBPß, KLF5, C/EBPα, and PPARγ. Taken together, our data clearly suggest that bile acid-induced ORM secretion from the liver blocks adipocyte differentiation, potentially linked to anti-obesity effect of bile acids.

Vitamin D Receptor Activation in Liver Macrophages Ameliorates Hepatic Inflammation, Steatosis, and Insulin Resistance in Mice.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Obesity-induced chronic inflammation is a key component in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and insulin resistance. Increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines by macrophages in metabolic tissues promotes disease progression. In the diet-induced obesity (DIO) mouse model, activation of liver resident macrophages, or Kupffer cells (KCs), drives inflammatory responses, which recruits circulating macrophages and promotes fatty liver development, and ultimately contributes to impaired hepatic insulin sensitivity. Hepatic macrophages express the highest level of vitamin D receptors (VDRs) among nonparenchymal cells, whereas VDR expression is very low in hepatocytes. VDR activation exerts anti-inflammatory effects in immune cells. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Here we found that VDR activation exhibits strong anti-inflammatory effects in mouse hepatic macrophages, including those isolated from DIO livers, and mice with genetic loss of Vdr developed spontaneous hepatic inflammation at 6 months of age. Under the chronic inflammation conditions of the DIO model, VDR activation by the vitamin D analog calcipotriol reduced liver inflammation and hepatic steatosis, significantly improving insulin sensitivity. The hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp revealed that VDR activation greatly increased the glucose infusion rate, while hepatic glucose production was remarkably decreased. Glucose uptake in muscle and adipose did not show similar effects, suggesting that improved hepatic insulin sensitivity is the primary contributor to the beneficial effects of VDR activation. Finally, specifically ablating liver macrophages by treatment with clodronate liposomes largely abolished the beneficial metabolic effects of calcipotriol, confirming that VDR activation in liver macrophages is required for the antidiabetic effect. CONCLUSIONS: Activation of liver macrophage VDRs by vitamin D ligands ameliorates liver inflammation, steatosis and insulin resistance. Our results suggest therapeutic paradigms for treatment of NAFLD and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Novel role of dynamin-related-protein 1 in dynamics of ER-lipid droplets in adipose tissue.

Dynamin-Related-Protein 1 (DRP1) critically regulates mitochondrial and peroxisomal fission in multicellular organisms. However, the impact of DRP1 on other organelles, especially its direct influence on ER functions remains largely unclear. Here, we report that DRP1 translocates to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in response to ß-adrenergic stimulation. To further investigate the function of DRP1 on ER-lipid droplet (LD) dynamics and the metabolic subsequences, we generated an adipose tissue-specific DRP1 knockout model (Adipo-Drp1flx/flx ). We found that the LDs in adipose tissues of Adipo-Drp1flx/flx mice exhibited more unilocular morphology with larger sizes, and formed less multilocular structures upon cold exposure. Mechanistically, we discovered that abnormal LD morphology occurs because newly generated micro-LDs fail to dissociate from the ER due to DRP1 ablation. Conversely, the ER retention of LDs can be rescued by the overexpressed DRP1 in the adipocytes. The alteration of LD dynamics, combined with abnormal mitochondrial and autophagy functions in adipose tissue, ultimately lead to abnormalities in lipid metabolism in Adipo-Drp1flx/flx mice.

Bisphenol AF promotes inflammation in human white adipocytes.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals interact with transcription factors essential for adipocyte differentiation. Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals corresponds with elevated risks of obesity, but the effects of these compounds on human cells remain largely undefined. Widespread use of bisphenol AF (BPAF) as a bisphenol A (BPA) alternative in the plastics industry presents unknown health risks. To this end, we discovered that BPAF interferes with the metabolic function of mature human adipocytes. Although 4-day exposures to BPAF accelerated adipocyte differentiation, we observed no effect on mature fat cell marker genes. Additional gene and protein expression analysis showed that BPAF treatment during human adipocyte differentiation failed to suppress the proinflammatory transcription factor STAT1. Microscopy and respirometry experiments demonstrated that BPAF impaired mitochondrial function and structure. To test the hypothesis that BPAF fosters vulnerabilities to STAT1 activation, we treated mature adipocytes previously exposed to BPAF with interferon-γ (IFNγ). BPAF increased IFNγ activation of STAT1 and exposed mitochondrial vulnerabilities that disrupt adipocyte lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Collectively, our data establish that BPAF activates inflammatory signaling pathways that degrade metabolic activity in human adipocytes. These findings suggest how the BPA alternative BPAF contributes to metabolic changes that correspond with obesity.

miR-30a targets gene networks that promote browning of human and mouse adipocytes.

MicroRNA-30a (miR-30a) impacts adipocyte function, and its expression in white adipose tissue (WAT) correlates with insulin sensitivity in obesity. Bioinformatic analysis demonstrates that miR-30a expression contributes to 2% of all miRNA expression in human tissues. However, molecular mechanisms of miR-30a function in fat cells remain unclear. Here, we expanded our understanding of how miR-30a expression contributes to antidiabetic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) agonist activity and metabolic functions in adipocytes. We found that WAT isolated from diabetic patients shows reduced miR-30a levels and diminished expression of the canonical PPARγ target genes ADIPOQ and FABP4 relative to lean counterparts. In human adipocytes, miR-30a required PPARγ for maximal expression, and the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone robustly induced miR-30a but not other miR-30 family members. Transcriptional activity studies in human adipocytes also revealed that ectopic expression of miR-30a enhanced the activity of rosiglitazone coupled with higher expression of fatty acid and glucose metabolism markers. Diabetic mice that overexpress ectopic miR-30a in subcutaneous WAT display durable reductions in serum glucose and insulin levels for more than 30 days. In agreement with our in vitro findings, RNA-seq coupled with Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) suggested that miR-30a enabled activation of the beige fat program in vivo, as evidenced by enhanced mitochondrial biogenesis and induction of UCP1 expression. Metabolomic and gene expression profiling established that the long-term effects of ectopic miR-30a expression enable accelerated glucose metabolism coupled with subcutaneous WAT hyperplasia. Together, we establish a putative role of miR-30a in mediating PPARγ activity and advancing metabolic programs of white to beige fat conversion.

Correction to: The Emerging Roles of Steroid Hormone Receptors in Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS) of the Breast.

The original version of this article unfortunately contained mistakes.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells targeting a pathogenic MHC class II:peptide complex modulate the progression of autoimmune diabetes.

A primary initiating epitope in the NOD mouse model of Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) lies between residues 9 and 23 of the insulin B chain. The B:9-23 peptide can bind to the NOD MHC class II molecule (I-Ag7) in multiple registers, but only one, (register 3, R3), creates complexes able to stimulate the majority of pathogenic B:9-23-specific CD4+ T cells. Previously we generated a monoclonal antibody (mAb287) that targets this critical I-Ag7-B:9-23(R3) complex. When given weekly to pre-diabetic mice at either early or late stages of disease, mAb287 was able to delay or prevent T1D in the treated animals. Although the precise mechanism of action of mAb287 remains unclear, we hypothesized that it may involve deletion of antigen presenting cells (APCs) bearing the pathogenic IAg7-B:9-23(R3) complexes, and that this process might be rendered more efficient by re-directing cytotoxic T cells using a mAb287 chimeric antigen receptor (287-CAR). As anticipated, 287-CAR T cells secreted IFN-γ in response to stimulation by I-Ag7-B:9-23(R3) complexes expressed on artificial APCs, but not I-Ag7 loaded with other peptides, and killed the presenting cells in vitro. A single infusion of 287-CAR CD8+ T cells to young (5 week old) NOD mice significantly delayed the onset of overt hyperglycemia compared to untreated animals (p = 0.022). None of the 287-CAR CD8+ T cell treated mice developed diabetes before 18 weeks of age, while 29% of control-CAR T cell treated mice (p = 0.044) and 52% of the un-treated mice (p = 0.0001) had developed T1D by this time. However, the protection provided by 287-CAR CD8+ T cells declined with time, and no significant difference in overall incidence by 30 weeks between the 3 groups was observed. Mechanistic studies indicated that the adoptively transferred 287-CAR T cells selectively homed to pancreatic lymph nodes, and in some animals could persist for at least 1-2 weeks post-transfer, but were essentially undetectable 10-15 weeks later. Our study demonstrates that CAR T cells specific for a pathogenic MHC class II:peptide complex can be effective in vivo, but that a single infusion of the current iteration can only delay, but not prevent, the development of T1D. Future studies should therefore be directed towards optimizing strategies designed to improve the longevity of the transferred cells.

The Emerging Roles of Steroid Hormone Receptors in Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS) of the Breast.

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is a non-obligate precursor to most types of invasive breast cancer (IBC). Although it is estimated only one third of untreated patients with DCIS will progress to IBC, standard of care for treatment is surgery and radiation. This therapeutic approach combined with a lack of reliable biomarker panels to predict DCIS progression is a major clinical problem. DCIS shares the same molecular subtypes as IBC including estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) positive luminal subtypes, which encompass the majority (60-70%) of DCIS. Compared to the established roles of ER and PR in luminal IBC, much less is known about the roles and mechanism of action of estrogen (E2) and progesterone (P4) and their cognate receptors in the development and progression of DCIS. This is an underexplored area of research due in part to a paucity of suitable experimental models of ER+/PR + DCIS. This review summarizes information from clinical and observational studies on steroid hormones as breast cancer risk factors and ER and PR as biomarkers in DCIS. Lastly, we discuss emerging experimental models of ER+/PR+ DCIS.

Mitochondrial Activity in Human White Adipocytes Is Regulated by the Ubiquitin Carrier Protein 9/microRNA-30a Axis.

The acquisition of beige adipocyte features by white fat cells corresponds to protection against obesity-induced metabolic diseases in humans and animal models of type 2 diabetes. In adipose tissue, expression of the E2 small ubiquitin-like modifier ligase ubiquitin carrier protein 9 (Ubc9) is positively correlated with markers of insulin resistance and corresponds with impaired browning of human white adipocytes. However, the molecular regulation of Ubc9 expression in adipocytes and other cells remains unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that the mRNA and protein expression of Ubc9 are regulated by the microRNA miRNA-30a (miR-30a) in human subcutaneous adipocytes. Ubc9 and miR-30a exhibit inverse expression in adipose tissue, with miR-30a robustly elevated in brown fat. Depletion of Ubc9 by siRNA or enforced expression of a miR-30a mimic augments mitochondrial volume and respiration in human white adipocytes, reflecting features of brown fat cells. Furthermore, Ubc9 depletion induces a brown fat gene program in human subcutaneous adipocytes. Induction of the beige-selective gene program corresponds to stabilization of the PR domain-containing 16 (PRDM16) protein, an obligate transcriptional regulator of the brown/beige fat metabolic program in white adipocytes that interacts with Ubc9. Taken together, our data demonstrate a previously unappreciated molecular axis that controls browning of human white adipocytes.

The epidermal growth factor receptor critically regulates endometrial function during early pregnancy.

Infertility and adverse gynecological outcomes such as preeclampsia and miscarriage represent significant female reproductive health concerns. The spatiotemporal expression of growth factors indicates that they play an important role in pregnancy. The goal of this study is to define the role of the ERBB family of growth factor receptors in endometrial function. Using conditional ablation in mice and siRNA in primary human endometrial stromal cells, we identified the epidermal growth factor receptor (Egfr) to be critical for endometrial function during early pregnancy. While ablation of Her2 or Erbb3 led to only a modest reduction in litter size, mice lacking Egfr expression are severely subfertile. Pregnancy demise occurred shortly after blastocyst implantation due to defects in decidualization including decreased proliferation, cell survival, differentiation and target gene expression. To place Egfr in a genetic regulatory hierarchy, transcriptome analyses was used to compare the gene signatures from mice with conditional ablation of Egfr, wingless-related MMTV integration site 4 (Wnt4) or boneless morphogenic protein 2 (Bmp2); revealing that not only are Bmp2 and Wnt4 key downstream effectors of Egfr, but they also regulate distinct physiological functions. In primary human endometrial stromal cells, marker gene expression, a novel high content image-based approach and phosphokinase array analysis were used to demonstrate that EGFR is a critical regulator of human decidualization. Furthermore, inhibition of EGFR signaling intermediaries WNK1 and AKT1S1, members identified in the kinase array and previously unreported to play a role in the endometrium, also attenuate decidualization. These results demonstrate that EGFR plays an integral role in establishing the cellular context necessary for successful pregnancy via the activation of intricate signaling and transcriptional networks, thereby providing valuable insight into potential therapeutic targets.

GATA2 facilitates steroid receptor coactivator recruitment to the androgen receptor complex.

The androgen receptor (AR) is a key driver of prostate cancer (PC), even in the state of castration-resistant PC (CRPC) and frequently even after treatment with second-line hormonal therapies such as abiraterone and enzalutamide. The persistence of AR activity via both ligand-dependent and ligand-independent mechanisms (including constitutively active AR splice variants) highlights the unmet need for alternative approaches to block AR signaling in CRPC. We investigated the transcription factor GATA-binding protein 2 (GATA2) as a regulator of AR signaling and an actionable therapeutic target in PC. We demonstrate that GATA2 directly promotes expression of both full-length and splice-variant AR, resulting in a strong positive correlation between GATA2 and AR expression in both PC cell lines and patient specimens. Conversely, GATA2 expression is repressed by androgen and AR, suggesting a negative feedback regulatory loop that, upon androgen deprivation, derepresses GATA2 to contribute to AR overexpression in CRPC. Simultaneously, GATA2 is necessary for optimal transcriptional activity of both full-length and splice-variant AR. GATA2 colocalizes with AR and Forkhead box protein A1 on chromatin to enhance recruitment of steroid receptor coactivators and formation of the transcriptional holocomplex. In agreement with these important functions, high GATA2 expression and transcriptional activity predicted worse clinical outcome in PC patients. A GATA2 small molecule inhibitor suppressed the expression and transcriptional function of both full-length and splice-variant AR and exerted potent anticancer activity against PC cell lines. We propose pharmacological inhibition of GATA2 as a first-in-field approach to target AR expression and function and improve outcomes in CRPC.

Adipose Tissue Dysfunction and Energy Balance Paradigms in People Living With HIV.

Over the past 4 decades, the clinical care of people living with HIV (PLWH) evolved from treatment of acute opportunistic infections to the management of chronic, noncommunicable comorbidities. Concurrently, our understanding of adipose tissue function matured to acknowledge its important endocrine contributions to energy balance. PLWH experience changes in the mass and composition of adipose tissue depots before and after initiating antiretroviral therapy, including regional loss (lipoatrophy), gain (lipohypertrophy), or mixed lipodystrophy. These conditions may coexist with generalized obesity in PLWH and reflect disturbances of energy balance regulation caused by HIV persistence and antiretroviral therapy drugs. Adipocyte hypertrophy characterizes visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue depot expansion, as well as ectopic lipid deposition that occurs diffusely in the liver, skeletal muscle, and heart. PLWH with excess visceral adipose tissue exhibit adipokine dysregulation coupled with increased insulin resistance, heightening their risk for cardiovascular disease above that of the HIV-negative population. However, conventional therapies are ineffective for the management of cardiometabolic risk in this patient population. Although the knowledge of complex cardiometabolic comorbidities in PLWH continues to expand, significant knowledge gaps remain. Ongoing studies aimed at understanding interorgan communication and energy balance provide insights into metabolic observations in PLWH and reveal potential therapeutic targets. Our review focuses on current knowledge and recent advances in HIV-associated adipose tissue dysfunction, highlights emerging adipokine paradigms, and describes critical mechanistic and clinical insights.

Contributions of white adipose tissue to energy requirements for female reproduction.

Body composition impacts female fertility and there are established relationships between adipose tissue and the reproductive system. Maintaining functional adipose tissue is vital for meeting the energetic demands during the reproductive process, from ovulation to delivery and lactation. White adipose tissue (WAT) shows plastic responses to daily physiology and secretes diverse adipokines that affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, but many other interorgan interactions remain to be determined. This review summarizes the current state of research on the dialogue between WAT and the female reproductive system, focusing on the impact of this crosstalk on ovarian and endometrial factors essential for fecundity.

N-acetylaspartate from fat cells regulates postprandial body temperature.

N-acetylaspartate (NAA), the brain's second most abundant metabolite, provides essential substrates for myelination through its hydrolysis. However, activities and physiological roles of NAA in other tissues remain unknown. Here, we show aspartoacylase (ASPA) expression in white adipose tissue (WAT) governs systemic NAA levels for postprandial body temperature regulation. Proteomics and mass spectrometry revealed NAA accumulation in WAT of Aspa knockout mice stimulated the pentose phosphate pathway and pyrimidine production. Stable isotope tracing confirmed higher incorporation of glucose-derived carbon into pyrimidine metabolites in Aspa knockout cells. Additionally, serum NAA positively correlates with the pyrimidine intermediate orotidine and this relationship predicted lower body mass index in humans. Using whole-body and tissue-specific knockout mouse models, we demonstrate that fat cells provided plasma NAA and suppressed postprandial body temperature elevation. Furthermore, exogenous NAA supplementation reduced body temperature. Our study unveils WAT-derived NAA as an endocrine regulator of postprandial body temperature and physiological homeostasis.

The Hepatokine Orosomucoid 2 Mediates Beneficial Metabolic Effects of Bile Acids.

Bile acids (BAs) are pleiotropic regulators of metabolism. Elevated levels of hepatic and circulating BAs improve energy metabolism in peripheral organs, but the precise mechanisms underlying the metabolic benefits and harm still need to be fully understood. In the current study, we identified orosomucoid 2 (ORM2) as a liver-secreted hormone (i.e., hepatokine) induced by BAs and investigated its role in BA-induced metabolic improvements in mouse models of diet-induced obesity. Contrary to our expectation, under a high-fat diet (HFD), our Orm2 knockout (Orm2-KO) exhibited a lean phenotype compared with C57BL/6J control, partly due to the increased energy expenditure. However, when challenged with a HFD supplemented with cholic acid, Orm2-KO eliminated the antiobesity effect of BAs, indicating that ORM2 governs BA-induced metabolic improvements. Moreover, hepatic ORM2 overexpression partially replicated BA effects by enhancing insulin sensitivity. Mechanistically, ORM2 suppressed interferon-γ/STAT1 activities in inguinal white adipose tissue depots, forming the basis for anti-inflammatory effects of BAs and improving glucose homeostasis. In conclusion, our study provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms of BA-induced liver-adipose cross talk through ORM2 induction.

The activity of the androgen receptor variant AR-V7 is regulated by FOXO1 in a PTEN-PI3K-AKT-dependent way.

BACKGROUND: The androgen receptor (AR) AR-V7 splice isoform is a constitutively active outlaw transcription factor. Transition of prostate cancer (PC) to the castration-resistant phenotype correlates with AR-V7 accumulation, suggesting that PC progression in patients refractory to conventional therapy is due to the activity of this AR isoform. The mechanism of AR-V7 constitutive activation is not known. METHODS: We analyzed potential signaling pathways associated with AR-V7 constitutive activation in PTEN (-) PC-3 and LNCaP cells. We used transient and stable transfection, reporter gene assay, RNAi technology together with a number of kinase inhibitors to determine if AR-V7 activation is linked to a kinase-dependent signaling pathway. RESULTS: In these cell lines, AR-V7 transcriptional activity was inhibited by LY294002, Wortmanin, and AKT inhibitor II. Analysis of the contributing mechanisms demonstrated the involvement of the Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-AKT-FOXO1 signaling pathway, and a significant reduction of AR-V7 constitutive activity under conditions of PTEN reactivation. CONCLUSIONS: Our study identifies a pathway regulating AR-V7 constitutive activity and potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of castration-resistant PC.

Androgen receptor agonism promotes an osteogenic gene program in preadipocytes.

Androgens regulate body composition by interacting with the androgen receptor (AR) to control gene expression in a tissue-specific manner. To identify novel regulatory roles for AR in preadipocytes, we created a 3T3-L1 cell line stably expressing human AR. We found AR expression is required for androgen-mediated inhibition of 3T3-L1 adipogenesis. This inhibition is characterized by decreased lipid accumulation, reduced expression of adipogenic genes, and induction of genes associated with osteoblast differentiation. Collectively, our results suggest androgens promote an osteogenic gene program at the expense of adipocyte differentiation.