All-cause and cause-specific mortality risk and loss in life expectancy associated with incident type 2 diabetes onset age and duration.

BACKGROUND: Evidence on type 2 diabetes onset age and duration on mortality risk has been limited by short follow-up, inadequate control for confounding, missing repeated measurements, and inability to cover the full range of onset age, duration, and major causes of death. Moreover, scarce data dissect how type 2 diabetes onset age and duration shape life expectancy. METHODS: We evaluate prospectively these topics based on 270,075 eligible participants in the Nurses' Health Studies and Health Professionals Follow-up Study, leveraging repeated measurements throughout up to 40 years of follow-up. Cox models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: In fully adjusted analyses, incident early onset type 2 diabetes (diagnosed <40 years of age) was associated with significantly higher mortality from all-causes (HR, 95% CI was 3.16, 2.64-3.79; vs. individuals without type 2 diabetes), cardiovascular disease (6.56, 4.27-10.1), respiratory disease (3.43, 1.38-8.51), neurodegenerative disease (5.13, 2.09-12.6), and kidney disease (8.55, 1.98-36.9). The relative risk elevations declined dramatically with each higher decade of age at diagnosis for deaths from most of these causes, though the absolute risk difference increased continuously. A substantially higher cumulative incidence of mortality and a greater loss in life expectancy were associated with younger age at type 2 diabetes diagnosis. Longer disease duration was associated with generally higher relative and absolute risk of mortality. CONCLUSION: Early onset of type 2 diabetes and longer disease duration are associated with substantially increased risk of all-cause and cause-specific mortality and greater loss in life expectancy.

Higher Dietary Intake of Animal Protein Foods in Pregnancy Is Associated with Lower Risk of Adverse Birth Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of adverse birth outcomes is highest in resource-limited settings such as sub-Saharan Africa. Maternal consumption of diets with adequate nutrients during pregnancy may protect against these adverse outcomes. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to determine the association between maternal dietary consumption of animal source foods (ASFs) and the risk of adverse birth outcomes among HIV-negative pregnant women in Tanzania. METHODS: Using dietary intake data from 7564 HIV-negative pregnant women, we used Poisson regression with the empirical variance (generalized estimating equation) to estimate the RR of adverse birth outcomes-preterm birth, very preterm birth, small for gestational age (SGA), low birth weight (LBW), stillbirth, and neonatal death-for higher and lower frequency of ASF intake. RESULTS: Median daily dietary intake of animal protein was 17 g (IQR: 1-48 g). Higher frequency of ASF protein intake was associated with lower risk of neonatal death (quartile 4 compared with quartile 1; RR: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.38, 0.90; P-trend = 0.01). Higher fish intake was associated with lower risk of very preterm birth (high tertile compared with low; RR: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.58, 0.99; P-trend = 0.02). Any meat intake was protective of preterm birth (RR: 0.73; 95% CI: 0.65, 0.82; P < 0.001), very preterm birth (P < 0.001), LBW (P < 0.001), and neonatal death (P = 0.01) but was associated with increased risk of SGA (RR:1.19; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.36; P = 0.04). Any egg intake was protective of very preterm birth (RR: 0.50; 95% CI: 0.31, 0.83; P = 0.01) as compared with no egg intake. Finally, any dairy intake was associated with lower risk of preterm birth (RR: 0.82; 95% CI: 0.68, 0.98; P = 0.03) and very preterm birth (RR: 0.53; 95% CI: 0.34, 0.84; P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Higher frequency of dietary intake of ASF is associated with lower risk of adverse birth outcomes in urban Tanzania. Promoting prenatal dietary intake of ASF may improve birth outcomes in this region and similar resource-limited settings.

Prenatal dietary diversity may influence underweight in infants in a Ugandan birth-cohort.

Growth faltering in early childhood is prevalent in many low resource countries. Poor maternal dietary diversity during pregnancy has been linked with increased risk of fetal growth failure and adverse birth outcomes but may also influence subsequent infant growth. Our aim is to assess the role of prenatal maternal dietary diversity in infant growth in rural Uganda. Data from 3291 women and infant pairs enrolled in a birth cohort from 2014 to 2016 were analysed (NCT04233944). Maternal diets were assessed using dietary recall in the second or third trimesters of pregnancy. Maternal dietary diversity scores (DDS) were calculated using the FAO Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women (MDD-W). Cox regression models were used to evaluate associations of the DDS with the incidence of underweight, stunting and wasting in infants from 3 to 12 months, adjusting for confounding factors. The median DDS for women was low, at 3.0 (interquartile range 3.0-4.0), relative to the threshold of consuming five or more food groups daily. Infants of women in highest quartile of DDS (diverse diets) were less likely to be underweight (adjusted hazard ratio: 0.70, 95% confidence interval: 0.61, 0.80) compared with infants of women in Quartile 1 (p for trend <0.001) in models controlling for maternal factors. There was no significant association between DDS and stunting or wasting. Our findings suggest a relationship between higher maternal dietary diversity and lower risk of underweight in infancy. These findings suggest that programmes to improve infant growth could additionally consider strengthening prenatal dietary diversity to improve child outcomes globally.

Prenatal Zinc and Vitamin A Reduce the Benefit of Iron on Maternal Hematologic and Micronutrient Status at Delivery in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Zinc and vitamin A supplementation have both been shown to affect iron status, hemoglobin (Hb) concentration, and anemia in animal and human studies. However, evidence on their combined use in pregnancy, in the context of iron-folic acid (IFA) supplementation, remains limited. OBJECTIVE: This study determined the effects of prenatal zinc, vitamin A, and iron supplementation on maternal hematologic and micronutrient status at delivery in Tanzania. METHODS: We analyzed 2 large randomized controlled trials, using generalized estimating equations, and examined the effect of daily zinc (25 mg) and vitamin A (2500 IU) supplementation starting in the first trimester of pregnancy compared with placebo (n = 2500), and separately evaluated the safety and efficacy of daily iron (60 mg) supplementation among iron-replete pregnant women (n = 1500). Blood samples from baseline and delivery were tested for Hb, serum ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor, plasma zinc, and zinc protoporphyrin. RESULTS: Zinc and vitamin A supplementation were associated with lower Hb concentrations at delivery of  -0.26 g/dL (95% CI: -0.50, -0.02 g/dL) and -0.25 g/dL (95% CI: -0.49, -0.01 g/dL), respectively. Vitamin A increased mean ferritin concentrations at delivery (14.3 µg/L, 95% CI: 1.84, 29.11 µg/L), but was associated with increased risk of severe anemia (RR: 1.41; 95% CI: 1.06, 1.88). Among women who were iron replete at baseline, iron supplementation reduced the risk of iron depletion at delivery by 47% (RR: 0.53; 95% CI: 0.43, 0.65). There was no effect of zinc or iron supplements on plasma zinc concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support existing WHO guidelines on prenatal iron, vitamin A, and zinc supplementation among pregnant women. In this setting, scaling uptake of prenatal iron supplements is warranted, but prenatal zinc and vitamin A supplementation did not benefit maternal hematologic status at delivery. In settings where vitamin A deficiency is endemic, the efficacy and safety of the WHO recommended prenatal vitamin A supplementation require further evaluation.

Impaired Hematological Status Increases the Risk of Mortality among HIV-Infected Adults Initiating Antiretroviral Therapy in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Hematological status may predict HIV disease progression and mortality among adults initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). OBJECTIVES: We aimed to examine the relation of anemia and iron status at HAART initiation with survival and morbidity outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a case-cohort study of 570 HIV-infected adults initiating HAART who were enrolled in a trial of multivitamins in Tanzania. Hemoglobin, serum ferritin, and hepcidin concentrations were assessed at HAART initiation and participants were followed up monthly. We adjusted serum ferritin for inflammation using a regression correction method to characterize hematological status. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate HRs for mortality and incident clinical outcomes. RESULTS: We found an 83% prevalence of anemia, 15% prevalence of iron deficiency anemia, and 66% prevalence of anemia of chronic diseases (ACD). The prevalence of elevated iron was 33% and 19% had iron deficiency (ID). After multivariate adjustment, severe anemia (HR: 2.57; 95% CI: 1.49, 4.45) and ACD (HR: 4.71; 95% CI: 2.91, 7.62) were associated with increased risk of mortality as compared with nonanemic participants. In addition, both ID (HR: 2.65; 95% CI: 1.08, 7.78) and elevated iron (HR: 2.83; 95% CI: 2.10, 3.82) were associated with increased risk of mortality as compared with normal iron concentrations. Severe anemia and elevated iron concentrations were associated with incident wasting and >10% weight loss (P values <0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Anemia and both ID and elevated iron were associated with increased mortality among HIV-infected adults initiating HAART. Safety and efficacy studies including anemia etiology, timing of HAART initiation, and dose of iron supplementation among HIV patients appear warranted.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00383669.

Effectiveness of the innovative 1,7-malaria reactive community-based testing and response (1, 7-mRCTR) approach on malaria burden reduction in Southeastern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: In 2015, a China-UK-Tanzania tripartite pilot project was implemented in southeastern Tanzania to explore a new model for reducing malaria burden and possibly scaling-out the approach into other malaria-endemic countries. The 1,7-malaria Reactive Community-based Testing and Response (1,7-mRCTR) which is a locally-tailored approach for reporting febrile malaria cases in endemic villages was developed to stop transmission and Plasmodium life-cycle. The (1,7-mRCTR) utilizes existing health facility data and locally trained community health workers to conduct community-level testing and treatment. METHODS: The pilot project was implemented from September 2015 to June 2018 in Rufiji District, southern Tanzania. The study took place in four wards, two with low incidence and two with a higher incidence. One ward of each type was selected for each of the control and intervention arms. The control wards implemented the existing Ministry of Health programmes. The 1,7-mRCTR activities implemented in the intervention arm included community testing and treatment of malaria infection. Malaria case-to-suspect ratios at health facilities (HF) were aggregated by villages, weekly to identify the village with the highest ratio. Community-based mobile test stations (cMTS) were used for conducting mass testing and treatment. Baseline (pre) and endline (post) household surveys were done in the control and intervention wards to assess the change in malaria prevalence measured by the interaction term of 'time' (post vs pre) and arm in a logistic model. A secondary analysis also studied the malaria incidence reported at the HFs during the intervention. RESULTS: Overall the 85 rounds of 1,7-mRCTR conducted in the intervention wards significantly reduced the odds of malaria infection by 66% (adjusted OR 0.34, 95% CI 0.26,0.44, p < 0001) beyond the effect of the standard programmes. Malaria prevalence in the intervention wards declined by 81% (from 26% (95% CI 23.7, 7.8), at baseline to 4.9% (95% CI 4.0, 5.9) at endline). In villages receiving the 1,7-mRCTR, the short-term case ratio decreased by over 15.7% (95% CI - 33, 6) compared to baseline. CONCLUSION: The 1,7-mRCTR approach significantly reduced the malaria burden in the areas of high transmission in rural southern Tanzania. This locally tailored approach could accelerate malaria control and elimination efforts. The results provide the impetus for further evaluation of the effectiveness and scaling up of this approach in other high malaria burden countries in Africa, including Tanzania.

Factors associated with sub-microscopic placental malaria and its association with adverse pregnancy outcomes among HIV-negative women in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Malaria infection during pregnancy has negative health consequences for both mothers and offspring. Sub-microscopic malaria infection during pregnancy is common in most African countries. We sought to identify factors associated with sub-microscopic placental malaria, and its association with adverse pregnancy outcomes among HIV-negative pregnant women in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. METHODS: We recruited a cohort of pregnant women during their first trimester and assessed for the occurrence of placental malaria and pregnancy outcomes. The follow-up was done monthly from recruitment until delivery. Histopathology placental malaria positive results were defined as the presence of malaria pigment or parasitized erythrocytes on the slide (histology-positive (HP)), and the sub-microscopic placental infection was defined as positive Plasmodium falciparum DNA by polymerase chain reaction (DNA PCR) amplification in a negative histopathology test. Adverse pregnancy outcomes investigated included low birth weight (birth weight below 2.5 kg), prematurity (live birth below 37 weeks), and small-for-gestational-age (SGA) (live born with a birth weight below 10th percentile for gestational age and sex). Weighted baseline category logit, log-binomial, and log-Poisson models were used to assess factors associated with placental malaria, and its association with adverse pregnancy outcomes. RESULTS: Among 1115 women who had histopathology and DNA PCR performed, 93 (8%) had HP placental infection, and 136 (12%) had the sub-microscopic placental infection. The risk of sub-microscopic placental malaria was greater in women who did not use mosquito prevention methods such as bed nets, fumigation, or mosquito coils (odds ratio (OR) = 1.75; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.05-2.92; P = 0.03) and in women who were anemic (OR = 1.59; 95% CI: 1.20-2.11; P = 0.001). Women who were underweight had reduced odds of sub-microscopic placental malaria infection (OR = 0.33; 95% CI: 0.17-0.62; P = 0.001). Women who were overweight/obese had 1.48 times higher the odds of HP placental malaria compared to normal weight (OR = 1.48; 95% CI: 1.03-2.11; P = 0.03). HP placental malaria infection was associated with an increased risk of SGA births (RR = 1.30, 95% CI: 0.98-1.72, P = 0.07). In contrast, the sub-microscopic infection was associated with a reduced risk of SGA births (RR = 0.61, 95% CI: 0.43-0.88, P = 0.01). Placental malaria was not associated with low birth weight or prematurity. CONCLUSION: Malaria prevention methods and maternal nutrition status during early pregnancy were important predictors of sub-microscopic placental malaria. More research is needed to understand sub-microscopic placental malaria and the possible mechanisms mediating the association between placental malaria and SGA.

Assessment of the impact of availability and readiness of malaria services on uptake of intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp) provided during ANC visits in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy (IPTp) is a highly-recommended intervention to prevent maternal and neonatal complications associated with malaria infection. Despite fairly high antenatal care (ANC) coverage in Tanzania, low IPTp uptake rates represent a gap in efforts to decrease complications attributed to malaria in pregnancy. The objective of this study was to examine if availability, readiness and managing authority are associated with uptake of IPTp during ANC. METHODS: Data for this analysis come from a cross-sectional survey, the Tanzania Service Provision Assessment conducted between 2014 and 2015. Principal component analysis was used to create scores for availability of malaria services and readiness for the provision of services. Generalized estimating equation models with logit link and the binomial distribution assessed factors that impact the uptake of IPTp by pregnant women attending ANC. RESULTS: Higher fraction of women in their third trimester than second (68% versus 49%, OR = 2.6; 95% CI (2.1-3.3)), had received at least one dose of IPTp. There was a wide variation in the availability and readiness of malaria services provision and diagnostic tools by managing authorities. Public facilities were more likely than private to offer malaria rapid diagnostic test, and more providers at public facilities than private diagnosed and/or treated malaria. Women who attended facilities where direct observation therapy was practiced were more likely to have received at least one dose of IPTp (64% versus 46% who received none; p < 0.001). Women who attended ANC at a facility with a high readiness score were more likely to take IPTp than those attending facilities with low readiness scores (OR = 2.1; 95% CI (1.4-3.3)). Reported stock out on the day of interview was negatively associated with IPTp uptake (OR 0.09; 95% CI 0.07-0.1). CONCLUSION: Readiness of health facilities to provide malaria related services, the number of ANC visits and gestational age were associated with uptake of IPTp among women attending ANC. There are disparities in malaria service availability and readiness across geographical location and managing authorities. These findings could be used to assist the malaria programme and policymakers to appropriately decide when planning for malaria service deliveries and interventions.

Switching to second-line ART in relation to mortality in a large Tanzanian HIV cohort.

Objectives: In a large cohort of HIV-infected Tanzanians, we assessed: (i) rates of first-line treatment failure and switches to second-line ART; (ii) the effect of switching to second-line ART on death and loss to follow-up; and (iii) treatment outcomes on second-line ART by regimen. Methods: HIV-1-infected adults (≥15 years) initiated on first-line ART between November 2004 and September 2012, and who remained on initial therapy for at least 24 weeks before switching, were studied. Survival analyses were conducted to examine the effect of second-line ART on mortality and loss to follow-up in: (i) the whole cohort; (ii) all patients eligible for second-line ART by immunological failure (IF) and/or virological failure (VF) criteria; and (iii) patients eligible by VF criteria. Results: In total, 47 296 HIV-infected patients [mean age 37.5 (SD 9.5) years, CD4 175 (SD 158) cells/mm 3 , 71% female] were included in the analyses. Of these, 1760 (3.7%) patients switched to second-line ART (incidence rate = 1.7/100 person-years). Higher rates of mortality were observed in switchers versus non-switchers in all patients and patients with ART failure using IF/VF criteria. Switching only protected against mortality in patients with ART failure defined virologically and with the highest level of adherence [switching versus non-switching; >95% adherence; adjusted HR = 0.50 (95% CI = 0.26-0.93); P = 0.03]. Conclusions: Switching patients to second-line ART may only be beneficial in a select group of patients who are virologically monitored and demonstrate good adherence. Our data emphasize the need for routine viral load monitoring and aggressive adherence interventions in HIV programmes in sub-Saharan Africa.

Dietary iron and calcium intakes during pregnancy are associated with lower risk of prematurity, stillbirth and neonatal mortality among women in Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: Prematurity, stillbirth and other adverse birth outcomes remain major concerns in resource-limited settings. Poor dietary intake of micronutrients during pregnancy has been associated with increased risk of adverse outcomes. We determined the relationships between dietary Fe and Ca intakes during pregnancy and risks of adverse birth outcomes among HIV-negative women. DESIGN: Women's diet was assessed through repeated 24 h diet recalls in pregnancy. Mean intakes of total Fe, Fe from animal sources and Ca during pregnancy were examined in relation to adverse birth outcomes and neonatal mortality. Women were prescribed daily Fe supplements as per standard perinatal care. SETTING: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. SUBJECTS: A cohort of 7634 pregnant women. RESULTS: Median (interquartile range) daily dietary intake of total Fe, animal Fe and Ca was 11·9 (9·3-14·7), 0·5 (0-1·1) and 383·9 (187·4-741·2) mg, respectively. Total Fe intake was significantly associated with reduced risk of stillbirth (trend over quartiles, P=0·010). Animal Fe intake was significantly associated with reduced risk of preterm birth and extreme preterm birth. Animal Fe intake was inversely related to neonatal mortality risk; compared with women in the lowest intake quartile, those in the top quartile were 0·51 times as likely to have neonatal death (95 % CI 0·33, 0·77). Higher Ca intake was associated with reduced risk of preterm birth (relative risk; 95 % CI: 0·76; 0·65, 0·88) and extreme preterm birth (0·63; 0·47, 0·86). Women in the highest Ca intake quartile had reduced risk of neonatal mortality (0·59; 0·37, 0·92). CONCLUSIONS: Daily dietary Fe and Ca intakes among pregnant women are very low. Improvement of women's diet quality during gestation is likely to improve the risks of adverse birth outcomes.

Nutritional status and complementary feeding among HIV-exposed infants: a prospective cohort study.

Complementary feeding is crucial for improving child survival and promoting growth and development, particularly among HIV-exposed children who have higher risk of morbidity and mortality than their un-exposed peers. This prospective study employed an infant and child feeding index (ICFI) to measure complementary feeding and determine its association with nutritional status among 2092 HIV-exposed infants followed from 6 to 24 months of age in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The ICFI measured both quality and quantity of complementary feeding, including current breastfeeding status, food consistency, dietary diversity scores (DDS), food group frequency score, and meal frequency. The ICFI score ranged from 0 to 9; the median score was 6 (Inter-Quartile Range, IQR= 4-7). After adjusting for potential confounders, high ICFI scores were associated with reduced risk of stunting (high vs. low tertile hazard ratio, HR: 0.72; 95% confidence interval, CI: 0.57, 0.91; P< 0.01) and underweight (high vs. low tertile HR: 0.79; 95% CI: 0.61, 1.02; P= 0.07). Low DDS were associated with higher risk of stunting (low vs. high tertile HR: 1.59; 95% CI: 1.23, 2.07; P< 0.01) and underweight (low vs. high tertile HR: 1.48; 95% CI: 1.12, 1.96; P= 0.01). In this setting, high DDS and ICFI scores were protective of stunting and underweight. We recommend for nutrition programs in low-income countries to emphasize educating HIV-exposed children's caregivers on the importance of dietary diversity and optimal complementary feeding to improve nutritional status in this important subpopulation.

Antiretroviral Therapy in Relation to Birth Outcomes among HIV-infected Women: A Cohort Study.

Although the beneficial effects of antiretroviral (ARV) therapy for preventing mother-to-child transmission are indisputable, studies in developed and developing countries have reported conflicting findings on the association between ARV exposure and adverse birth outcomes. We conducted a prospective observational study at 10 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care and treatment centers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Multivariate log-binomial regression was used to investigate the associations between ARV use and adverse birth outcomes among HIV-negative HIV-exposed infants. Our findings demonstrate an increased risk of adverse birth outcomes associated with the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy. Further studies are needed to investigate the underlying mechanisms and identify the safest ARV regimens for use during pregnancy.

Time trends of baseline demographics and clinical characteristics of HIV infected children enrolled in care and treatment service in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have described time-based trends of clinical and demographic characteristics of children enrolling in HIV and AIDS care and treatment services. We present findings of a study that explored time-based trends of baseline characteristics among children enrolling into 26 public HIV care facilities in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. METHODS: Children enrolled between October 2004 and September 2011 was included in these analyses. The year of enrollment was used as the primary predictor of interest, and log linear and linear regressions model were used to analyze dichotomous and continuous variables respectively. P-values under 0.05 were considered significant. RESULTS: Among the 6,579 children enrolled, the proportion with advanced disease at enrollment increased from 35% to 58%, mean age increasing from 5.0 to 6.2 years (p < 0.0001), proportion of children less than 2 years decreased from 35% to 29%. While the median hemoglobin concentration rose from 9.1 g/dl to 10.3 g/dl (P <0.0001), proportion with a history of past TB dropped from 25% to 12.8% (P < 0.0001). Over time, health centers and dispensaries enrolled more children as compared to hospitals (P < 0.0001). Temeke district, which has the lowest socioeconomic status among the three districts in Dar es Salaam, had a significant increase in enrollment from 22% to 25% (P = 0.02). CONCLUSION: We found that as time progressed, children were enrolled in care and treatment services at an older age sicker status as evidenced by increase in mean age and more advanced disease stage at first contact with providers. We recommend more efforts be focused on scaling up early HIV infant diagnosis and enrollment to HIV care and treatment.

The contribution of preterm birth and intrauterine growth restriction to childhood undernutrition in Tanzania.

Objectives were to examine the growth patterns of preterm and growth-restricted infants and to evaluate the associations of prematurity and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) with risk of stunting, wasting and underweight. Data from a cohort of HIV-negative pregnant women-infant pairs were collected prospectively in Tanzania. Small for gestational age [SGA, birthweight (BW) <10th percentile] was used as proxy for IUGR. Anthropometry was measured monthly until 18 months. Length-for-age (LAZ), weight-for-length (WLZ), and weight-for-age (WAZ) z-scores were calculated using the 2006 World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards. Stunting, wasting and underweight were defined as binary outcomes using a cut-off of <-2 SD of the respective z-scores. Multivariate Cox proportional hazard models were used to assess the associations between preterm and SGA to time to stunting, wasting and underweight. The study included 6664 singletons. Preterm and appropriate for gestational age (AGA) infants had slightly better nutritional status than term-SGA infants and despite some catch-up growth, preterm-SGA infants had the poorest nutritional status. The gap in LAZ and WAZ z-scores among the groups remained similar throughout the follow-up. Compared with term-AGA babies, relative risk (RR) of stunting among preterm-AGA babies was 2.13 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.93-2.36), RR among term-SGA was 2.21 (95% CI 2.02-2.41) and the highest risk was among the babies who were both preterm and SGA (RR = 7.58, 95% CI 5.41-10.64). Similar magnitude of RR of underweight was observed among the three groups. Preterm and SGA infants should be closely monitored for growth failure. Intervention to reduce preterm and SGA birth may lower risk of undernutrition in resource-limited settings.

Macronutrient and sociodemographic determinants of gestational weight gain among HIV-negative women in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: The effect of dietary macronutrient composition on the rate of gestational weight gain among women in sub-Saharan Africa is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of macronutrient intake on the rate of gestational weight gain among HIV-negative women in Tanzania. METHODS: The weights of 8,428 women were measured monthly from 12 weeks of gestation to term. Prenatal dietary intake was estimated as the cumulative average of multiple 24-hour dietary recalls. The association between energy intake and percentage of energy from carbohydrate, protein, and total fat and rate of weight gain (grams per month) was estimated from generalized estimating equation models. Macronutrient effects were adjusted for total energy using the nutrient density model and maternal age, maternal height, maternal mid-upper-arm circumference, parity, marital status, maternal occupation, maternal education, household wealth, season, and treatment regimen assignment. Body mass index (BMI) was considered as a confounder and a potential modifier of the effect of macronutrient intake on gestational weight gain. RESULTS: A 6 g/month increase in rate of weight gain was associated with every 100-kcal increment in daily total energy intake (95% CI, 1 to 12; p = .03). Analyses substituting 5% of energy from fat by protein showed that weight gain would decrease by 72 g/month (95% CI, 6 to 140; p = .03); substituting 5% of energy from carbohydrate by protein decreased gain by 70 g/month (95% CI, 15 to 124; p = .01). Baseline BMI did not modify these associations. CONCLUSIONS: Further research on the effects of macronutrient composition on gestational weight gain is needed to inform the design of supplementation programs for women in developing countries.

First-line antiretroviral therapy and changes in lipid levels over 3 years among HIV-infected adults in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: With the rapid rollout of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), there has been an increasing concern about cardiovascular risks related to ART. However, data from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected populations from this region are very limited. METHODS: Among 6385 HIV-infected adults in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, we investigated the nonfasting lipid changes over 3 years following ART initiation and their associations with different first-line ART agents that are commonly used in SSA. RESULTS: In the first 6 months of ART, the prevalence of dyslipidemia decreased from 69% to 54%, with triglyceride (TG) decreasing from 127 mg/dL to 113 mg/dL and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol increasing from 39 mg/dL to 52 mg/dL. After 6 months, TG returned to its baseline level and increased to 139 mg/dL at 3 years; total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol continued to increase whereas HDL cholesterol leveled off. The prevalence of dyslipidemia increased to 73% after a 3-year follow-up. In multivariate analyses, patients on zidovudine-containing regimens had a greater reduction in TG levels at 6 months (-16.0 vs -6.3 mg/dL), and a lower increase at 3 years compared to patients on stavudine-containing regimens (2.1 vs 11.7 mg/dL, P < .001); patients on nevirapine-based regimens had a higher increase in HDL cholesterol levels at 3 years compared to those on efavirenz-based regimens (13.6 vs 9.5 mg/dL, P = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support the latest World Health Organization guidelines on the substitution of stavudine in first-line ART in resource-limited settings, and provide further evidence for selection of lipid-friendly ART for patients in SSA.

Nutritional predictors of acute respiratory infections among children born to HIV-infected women in Tanzania.

We prospectively determined the association between undernutrition and incidence of acute respiratory infections (ARIs) among 711 children born to HIV-infected women. Overall, underweight was associated with a 58% increased risk of ARI. Similarly, wasting (54%), very low birth weight (88%) and child HIV infection (62%) were significantly associated with increased risk of ARI during the first 2 years. Breastfeeding was associated with 52% reduction in risk of ARI only during the first 12 months of life. Among HIV-exposed, but uninfected, children, underweight, wasting and stunting were associated with 73%, 61% and 33% increased risk of ARI, respectively. Very low birthweight and advanced maternal disease stage were also associated with increased risk of ARI. Similar results were observed among HIV-infected children, except for stunting and very low birth weight. Prevention of child undernutrition could have major impact in reducing child ARI morbidity in settings of high HIV prevalence.

Dietary patterns, nutrient intake, and sociodemographic characteristics in HIV-infected Tanzanian pregnant women.

Routinely collected dietary intakes were available for 925 HIV-infected pregnant women participating in a longitudinal clinical trial of vitamin supplementation in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Information on sociodemographic and economic characteristics was recorded. Dietary macronutrient intakes were computed and analyzed using the Tanzania Food Composition Tables. Women's age, parity, education level, and economic independence were positively related to diet intake. Women younger than 25 years were at highest risk of inadequate food and nutrient intake. By World Health Organization recommendations, almost two-thirds of the participants were energy deficient, and nearly half were protein deficient.

HIV infection and the incidence of malaria among HIV-exposed children from Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is associated with increased risk of malaria incidence and recurrence in children. METHODS: Newborn infants of HIV-infected mothers were enrolled at 6 weeks and followed for 2 years. HIV status was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay and confirmed by HIV DNA polymerase chain reaction. Malaria was defined as (1) physician-diagnosed clinical malaria; (2) probable malaria, in which laboratory testing is requested for parasitemia; and (3) blood smear-confirmed malaria. Cox proportional hazards models estimated hazard ratios (HRs) for development of first and second malaria episodes, and generalized estimating equation models estimated malaria rate differences per 100-child-years in relation to time-updated HIV status. RESULTS: Child HIV infection was associated with clinical (HR, 1.34; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.12-1.61), probable (HR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.19-1.81), and confirmed (HR, 1.67; 95% CI, 1.18-2.36) malaria episodes. Per 100 child-years, HIV-infected children experienced 88 (95% CI, 65-113), 36 (95% CI, 19-53), and 20 (95% CI, 9-31) more episodes of clinical, probable, and confirmed malaria episodes, respectively, than HIV-uninfected children. Among children with ≥1 malaria episodes, those with HIV infection developed second clinical (HR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.04-1.57), probable (HR, 1.60; 95% CI, 1.26-2.14), and confirmed (HR, 2.27; 95% CI, 1.06-3.89) malaria sooner than HIV-uninfected children. CONCLUSIONS: HIV infection is a risk factor for the development of malaria. Proactive malaria disease prevention and treatment is warranted for all children, particularly those with HIV infection in settings of coendemicity.

Body mass index, proteinuria and total lymphocyte counts in predicting treatment responses among ART naïve individuals with HIV initiated on antiretroviral treatment in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2019: a cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the potential use of body mass index (BMI), proteinuria and total lymphocyte count changes in predicting immunological and virological response in individuals with HIV initiated on antiretroviral treatment (ART). DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Three urban HIV care and treatment centres in Dar es Salaam. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals with HIV initiating ART. OUTCOME MEASURES: HIV viral load ≥1000 copies/mL (viral non-suppression) at 6 months after ART initiation. RESULTS: Of 215 (out of 220 enrolled) participants who returned for evaluation at 6 months, 147 (66.8%) were women. At 6 months of follow-up, 89.4% (76/85) of participants with sustained weight gain were virally suppressed compared with 31.8% (7/22) with sustained loss, p<0.001. In participants who were lymphopaenic at baseline, an increase to normal total lymphocyte counts at 6 months was associated with an increase in CD4 count compared with participants who remained lymphopaenic, 96.2% (50/52) versus 54.8% (17/31), p<0.001. At baseline, 50.0% (110/220) had proteinuria. In participants without proteinuria from baseline to 6 months, 89.8% (79/88) were virally suppressed compared with participants with proteinuria at baseline and/or 3 months, 85.6% (77/90), those with persistent proteinuria, 30.8% (8/26), and proteinuria at 6 months only, 45.5% (5/11), p<0.001. In modified Poisson regression, the independent predictors other than CD4 cell counts for viral non-suppression at 6 months among individuals with HIV initiating on ART were BMI loss >5% from baseline to 6 months (adjusted RR 2.73, 95% CI (1.36 to 5.47)), lymphopaenia at 6 months (adjusted RR=4.54, 95% CI (2.19 to 9.39)) and proteinuria at 6 months (adjusted RR=2.63, 95% CI (1.25 to 5.54)). CONCLUSIONS: Change in BMI, total lymphocyte count and presence of proteinuria can monitor and predict ART response and may be particularly helpful in settings when CD4 counts and viral load monitoring are unavailable.