High-dose delay of the immune response. Effect of actinomycin D on continuation of the immune response in vitro.

The continuation of the primary and secondary antibody response to human serum albumin (HSA), induced in vivo, was followed in explanted chicken spleen fragments. The effect of actinomycin D (AMD) on the in vitro response was studied in spleens from chickens injected with various doses of HSA and removed at differing intervals after injection. The antibody response of "early spleen" cultures was AMD-sensitive, while cultures of spleens removed later were AMD-resistant. It was suggested that this shift represented the development of cells with in vivo preformed RNA involved in specific immunoglobulin synthesis. With increasing doses of HSA, the AMD-sensitive phase was prolonged, suggesting the delay of mRNA formation or some other AMD-inhibitable process in vivo. With large doses of HSA, the immune response in vitro was decreased, starting after a 1-2 day delay and not occurring in the presence of AMD. Massive doses of HSA completely inhibited the continuation of the response in vitro by spleen fragments removed between the 2nd and 5th day after injection. The results point to the controlling role of antigen dose in determining the onset of macromolecular synthesis during immunocyte maturation.

Resistance of natural killer T cell-deficient mice to systemic Shwartzman reaction.

The generalized Shwartzman reaction in mice which had been primed and challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) depends on interleukin (IL)-12-induced interferon (IFN)-gamma production at the priming stage. We examined the involvement in the priming mechanism of the unique population of Valpha14 natural killer T (NKT) cells because they promptly produce IFN-gamma after IL-12 stimulation. We report here that LPS- or IL-12-primed NKT cell genetically deficient mice were found to be resistant to LPS-elicited mortality. This outcome can be attributed to the reduction of IFN-gamma production, because injection of recombinant mouse IFN-gamma, but not injection of IL-12, effectively primed the NKT cell-deficient mice. However, priming with high doses of LPS caused mortality of severe combined immunodeficiency, NKT cell-deficient, and CD1-deficient mice, indicating a major contribution of NKT cells to the Shwartzman reaction elicited by low doses of LPS, whereas at higher doses of LPS NK cells play a prominent role. These results suggest that the numerically small NKT cell population of normal mice apparently plays a mandatory role in the priming stage of the generalized Shwartzman reaction.

Time course of mycobacterial infection of dendritic cells in the lungs of intranasally infected mice.

SETTING: Dendritic cells (DC) could regulate between the protective and pathogenic immune responses following tuberculous infection. In this paper we investigated if their early infection in the lungs represents a plausible alternative to cross-priming with mycobacterial antigens acquired from infected macrophages. OBJECTIVE: To determine the extent and time course of infection of lung DCs following intranasal inoculation of BALB/c mice with green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagged Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG). RESULTS: A fraction of GFP-BCG infected lung cells were classified as monocytic DCs with the CD11c+IA+33D1+CD8a- phenotype. These cells represented 5-18% of the total GFP+ cells, the bulk of which were macrophages. The infected DCs could be separated by cell size into two fractions with similar cell surface staining properties during the 2-72 h period after infection. An unexpected difference was observed for the time course of infection between DCs and macrophages: DC infection peaked at 48 h followed by decline at 72 h, while the proportion of infected macrophages remained steady during the same period. CONCLUSION: The presented results are direct evidence that monocytic DCs are recruited to the lungs and take up live bacilli within 48 h of intranasal infection with GFP-BCG. This finding is pertinent for the regulation of pulmonary and systemic immune responses and possibly for the dissemination of mycobacterial infection by DCs.

The existence of lymphoid lineage restricted Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia with heterogeneous bcr-abl rearrangement.

Analysis of lineage involvement was performed in 17 Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients with no history of chronic myeloproliferative disorder. The percentage of blastic cells as defined by flow cytometry matched that of the Ph-positive cells in 14 out of 17 patients. The bcr-abl rearrangement was investigated by fluorescent in situ hybridization in morphologically identified blastic cells, myeloid elements, lymphocytes and erythroblasts using a combined light and fluorescent microscopical imaging. Lymphoid lineage restriction could be determined in all but three of the patients. These 14 patients exhibited heterogeneity in terms of m-bcr and M-bcr types of translocation as revealed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The three patients with multilineage involvement and M-bcr type of translocation reverted to chronic phase and the percentage of Ph-positive cells remained high. Thus, we could identify an uncommitted stem cell origin among Ph-positive ALLs only in those patients whose disease subsequently proved to be a lymphoid blastic crisis with clinically silent chronic phase.

Study of antigenic structure and inhibition of activity of human growth hormone and chorionic somatomammotropin by monoclonal antibodies.

Distinct antigenic determinants were identified on native molecules of human growth hormone (hGH) and chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) on the basis of competitive inhibition assays with eight murine monoclonal antibodies. Effective competition for antigen binding within a pair of antibodies indicated overlapping combining site specificities whereas a lack of competition suggested binding to sterically distinct structural moieties. An antigenic determinant, specific for hGH was detected by antibodies QA68 and NA27, whilst another marginally hCS-cross-reactive site was bound by NA71. Two distinct determinants fully expressed by either hGH or hCS were bound by antibody pairs NA39/EB2 and EB1/EB3 respectively, whereas a single hCS-specific determinant was recognized by antibody EB4. An unexpected reciprocal cross-inhibition of soluble antigen antibody complex binding was observed between antibodies reacting to distinct determinants, i.e. for NA27 towards NA39/EB2 and for NA71 towards EB1/EB3. These results were tentatively interpreted in terms of conformational changes of antigen when bound in soluble immune complexes, but an alternative explanation of steric hindrance cannot yet be excluded. The effect of monoclonal antibodies on the hormonal biological activity was investigated in a dose response study of the hormone-dependent growth stimulation of NB2 lymphoma cells in tissue culture. Although all eight antibodies were specifically growth-inhibitory, major quantitative differences in their efficacies have been observed. At limiting hormone doses antibodies EB2 NA39 were most effective whereas QA68 and NA71 were the most potent at excess hormone input. Various mechanisms operating through inhibition of hormone binding and/or modulation of cell receptor-bound complexes have been considered.

Localisation of linear epitopes at the carboxy-terminal end of the mycobacterial 71 kDa heat shock protein.

Four distinct linear epitopes localized within species-specific sequences at the carboxy-terminal end of the 71 kDa heat shock protein of M. tuberculosis have been identified by scanning 94 overlapping peptides with 13 human sera. One epitope ("C") of entirely M. tuberculosis-specific core sequence (GEAGPG) has been found immunogenic in smear-negative tuberculosis, but not in non-tuberculous mycobacterial diseases. This peptide appears to be a valuable candidate for further serodiagnostic evaluation.

Topographic and functional assay of antigenic determinants of human prolactin with monoclonal antibodies.

Six distinct antigenic determinants were identified on human prolactin (hPRL) by competition assays with murine monoclonal antibodies (MABs). The affinity of binding and the cross-reactivity of the antibodies with two non-primate prolactins was also determined. Binding of 125I-hPRL to MAB-coated microtitre plates in the presence of a second MAB resulted in either inhibition or enhancement of antigen binding to the plate. These results were interpreted in terms of conformational changes to epitopes, induced allosterically by the binding of a second MAB to the antigen. The topographic relationship of epitopes to the biologically active regions on the hormone was examined on the basis of the neutralizing potency of MABs in the proliferation of the prolactin-dependent cell line NB2. The NB2 growth-inhibitory activity was restricted to three distinct epitopes (NE02/6, 1208 and NE03) but absent from three other MABs tested (QB01, WC01/3 and 1200). On the basis of the competition and functional studies, an elemental scheme of the topographic localization of epitopes is presented. The experimental approach employed may contribute to studies on the allocation of biologically active sites on protein hormones.

Enhancement of bovine growth hormone activity in vivo by monoclonal antibodies.

Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) prepared against ovine growth hormone (oGH) and recognizing several distinct or related specificities on bovine growth hormone (bGH), have been shown to strikingly enhance the growth promoting properties of the hormone in vivo as determined by 35SO2-4 incorporation in cartilage. The phenomenon is dependent on both hormone and antibody dose and is saturable in the presence of excess antibody. Competition binding analysis between pairs of antibodies has shown that they define distinct antigenic regions on bGH of which one is represented by four MAbs. The most potent growth enhancement was associated with a group of three MAbs (OA11, OA12 and OA13) binding to topographically closely related sites. Another MAb (OA14) with a specificity similar to OA11 and OA13 as defined by competition assay failed to enhance bGH activity. Two antibodies binding to a further two sites (OA15 and OA16) demonstrated modest growth enhancement activity when in complex with bGH, whereas the binding of another antibody (OA17) did not significantly affect hormonal activity. Univalent antibody fragments (Fab) derived from MAb OA11 were equi-potent to the bivalent form of the antibody in the enhancement of bGH activity. Determination of the effects of the different MAbs on the binding of 125I-bGH to liver microsome receptors revealed substantial increase in specific binding (3.5-fold) and is associated with some growth enhancing MAbs. However, not all growth enhancing MAbs increased receptor binding and in the case of one, OA16, clear cut inhibition of receptor binding was observed. Tentative conclusions have been drawn on the possible underlying mechanisms of the MAb mediated enhancement phenomenon.

Monoclonal antibodies to human growth hormone can distinguish between pituitary and genetically engineered forms.

Monoclonal antibodies (MABs) prepared against human pituitary growth hormone (hGH) have been compared for their binding to pituitary-derived and genetically engineered methionyl growth hormone (met-hGH). The antibodies bind to four non-overlapping epitopes of which two are completely shared with human choronic somatomammotropin (hCS). The determinant defined by MAB NA27 was expressed on met-hGH to a lesser degree than on hGH of pituitary origin. However, another antibody, QA68, which binds to a determinant closely related to NA27, failed to discriminate between hGH and met-hGH. A further two MABs (EB1 and NA71) were similarly ineffective in distinguishing between the two forms of the hormone. The determinant recognized by antibody EB2 was equally represented on hGH and met-hGH when assessed by a liquid-phase radioimmunoassay: however, measurement of the binding in a solid-phase assay resulted in a two-four-fold lower binding to met-hGH. Bioactivity assessed by both an in vitro cell proliferation assay and an in vivo cartilage sulphation bioassay failed to distinguish between the two hormones. It is therefore concluded that the NH2-terminal methionine on bacterially derived growth hormone results in altered antigenicity of the hormone without any measurable effect on bioactivity.

Modulation of peptide specific T cell responses by non-native flanking regions.

The deduced core (75RYPNVTI81) from a T-cell stimulatory epitope of the 38 kDa protein of M. tuberculosis was studied to identify the structural elements required for the creation of a synthetic peptide antigen from an epitope core, which alone was not capable of inducing CD4+ T-cell responses. Peptides were prepared with extensions composed of native and/or non-native sequences to clarify the role of the flanking regions adjacent to the epitope core. Their binding to isolated H-2-Ab MHC glycoprotein as well as T-cell stimulatory capacity were assayed using a specific murine hybridoma T-cell line [38.H6], lymph node cells from the native 20-mer peptide primed C57BL/10 mice and human PBMCs from sensitised individuals. Elongation of the epitope core by four alanines at both N- and C-terminals resulted in a 15-mer peptide A4-75-81-A4 which was stimulatory for hybridoma T-cells and showed a small decrease in H-2-Ab binding. Substitution of one Ala by Ser in the N-terminal flank had pronounced effect and peptide A2SA-75-81-A4 proved to be more effective than the native 20-mer sequence in the hybridoma as well as in the LN cell proliferation assays. The binding of this peptide and that of the native one were similar. Testing in human PBMC cultures from eight PPD positive individuals showed that in 50% of the donors' cells responded to the 'artificial' A2SA-75-81-A4 peptide. These results suggest that it is possible to construct simple, synthetic CD4+ T-cell stimulatory peptides of high potency from a non-stimulatory, 'silent' epitope core by addition of flanking residues not part of the native sequence.

Mutagenesis of an immunodominant T cell epitope can affect recognition of different T and B determinants within the same antigen.

The effects of mutagenesis of residues of a major T cell epitope were investigated in order to expand knowledge from synthetic peptides to the naturally processed antigen. The impact of substitutions within the core of the immunodominant p61-80/PT19 mycobacterial epitope was ascertained in respect of this epitope per se, or of a C-terminal (140-159) overlapping T/B epitope and of a conformational B epitope. The core substitution A71L impaired T immunogenicity of the target epitope within the protein, but not in the peptide, whereas the N73A substitution impaired the responses in both instances. Notably, each of these single amino acid mutations abrogated the T but not the B immunogenicity of the C-terminal epitope. Furthermore, mutation of five core residues (71-76) also ablated expression of a monoclonal antibody defined conformational B epitope. In conclusion, immunological analysis of mutated proteins revealed functional associations between topographically distinct antigenic determinants which may account for the previously observed differences in the specificity of immune responses between immunised and infected hosts.

Monoclonal antibodies can enhance the biological activity of thyrotropin.

In this work we demonstrate that monoclonal antibodies (MABs) to TSH can enhance the biological actions of TSH in vivo. Hypopituitary Snell dwarf mice were injected with TSH (25, 50, or 100 mU/day) alone or complexed with MAB-GC73 once per day for 5 days; control animals received PBS. Radioactive sulfate (35SO4(2-)) was also injected on the fifth day and animals were killed 20 h later. Thyroids were removed for histology, blood taken for T4 estimations by RIA, and 35SO4(2-) uptake into costal cartilage in vivo was measured. In control mice thyroid histology revealed small follicles comprised of small flattened epithelial cells with a high nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio; colloid was dark with little vacuolation. In animals treated with TSH alone there was moderate evidence of activation in most of these features. However, a marked response was noted in animals treated with TSH plus MAB-GC73; characteristically, there was little interfollicular tissue and the follicles, which were large and comprised of cuboidal cells, contained pale, finely vacuolated cytoplasm. Both TSH alone and TSH complexed with MAB-GC73 promoted a significant dose-dependent increase in serum T4 levels. The two higher doses of TSH plus MAB-GC73 promoted a significantly greater increase in serum levels of T4 than that in groups receiving the same dose of TSH alone. Uptake of 35SO4(2-) into costal cartilage showed a significant correlation with serum T4 levels. In similar experiments significant increases in salivary gland epidermal growth factor content of male dwarf mice were observed. This work demonstrated that MAB enhancement of hormone action is not restricted to human GH, suggesting a more general phenomenon.

Identification of Mr variants of prolactin with monoclonal antibodies.

Monoclonal antibodies ( QB01 and 1200) prepared against human prolactin (hPRL) have helped define a variant form of the hormone. This variant is of apparently higher molecular mass (26 kDa) than the predominant form of the hormone (24 kDa) and its presence does not appear to be species-restricted. The demonstration of the 26 kDa form of hPRL in fresh pituitary tissue and amniotic fluid suggests it may retain some specific function.

An immunofluorescent technique for the detection of lymphocyte alloantigens.

A triple-layer immunofluorescent technique for the detection of cell surface alloantigens has been developed. Chicken lymphoid cells were treated in sequence with: 1) chicken alloantibody, 2) rabbit anti-chicken Fc or anti-gamma chain serum and 3) FITC-labelled sheep anti-rabbit globulin. The second layer was diluted to that point where normal serum treated lymphocytes were no longer stained but without diminishing the degree of specific staining. This method enables the study of alloantigens expressed on B cells, avoiding the problem of staining of surface Ig-bearing lymphocytes.

Detection of an antigen (MY4) common to M. tuberculosis and M. leprae by 'tandem' immunoassay.

A novel 'tandem' immunoassay for the detection of mycobacterial antigen was devised using a monoclonal antibody (ML 34) both as solid phase 'capture' and as the 125I- or enzyme-labelled 'tracer' antibody. This antibody binds to the repeating epitopes (MY4b) of a water-soluble protease-resistant antigen from M. tuberculosis, M. leprae and some other species of mycobacteria. Optimal binding results could be obtained within 4 h by the consecutive incubation of ML34-coated microtitre plates with antigen followed by the labelled ML34 antibody. The binding of intact bacilli was positive for M. tuberculosis but not for M. leprae. These results suggested that the MY4 antigen is expressed on the surface of M. tuberculosis and internally within M. leprae. Analysis of subcellular fractions suggested that this antigen is a constituent of cell walls.

A versatile system for the production of recombinant chimeric peptides.

Production of chimeric and multimeric peptides is of interest for the analysis of topographic relationships between T and B cell stimulatory epitopes. Recombinant DNA technology has certain advantages over conventional chemical peptide synthesis for the production of peptide constructs of large size (more than 40 amino acid residues). We describe a methodology which is versatile and independent of the expression vector used because it only relies on the incorporation of appropriate restriction enzyme sites in oligonucleotides. The method was verified using two 20mer sequences from the 38 kDa antigen of M. tuberculosis. Peptide 201-220, containing an antibody binding linear epitope, has been made immunogenic in vivo when combined with T cell stimulatory peptide 350-369 in a chimeric peptide. The results demonstrate that a distinct orientation of the constituent peptides was essential for achieving optimal immunogenicity.

The use of murine monoclonal antibodies without purification of antigen in the serodiagnosis of tuberculosis.

A serum diagnostic test for tuberculosis has been devised on the basis of competitive inhibition by human sera of the binding of 125I-labelled murine monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) to a solid-phase bound pressate of M. tuberculosis. Five monoclonal antibodies binding to distinct antigenic determinants of the organism were used as structural probes which conferred their stringent combining site specificities to the polyclonal mixture of human antibodies. Sera from patients but not from healthy controls competed effectively with the binding of 125I-labelled Mabs to M. tuberculosis-coated polyvinyl plates. This inhibition technique eliminated the need for elaborate purification of antigen used in previous serological methods. Some Mabs gave considerably more positive results than others. The best combination of tests used 2 Mabs and yielded a positive result in 71% of 41 patients with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis. This approach is applicable in principle to the serodiagnosis of other human bacterial diseases.

Antagonism between donor and host B cells in allotype congenic chicken chimeras.

B cell chimerism was analyzed in juvenile chickens given injections of major histocompatibility complex-compatible lymphoid cells. The allelic products of donor and host-derived B cells were monitored with antisera directed against M1 (IgM) and G1 (IgG) isotype-specific allotypes. Injection of peripheral blood lymphocytes and spleen cells suppressed host allotype levels whereas purified T lymphocytes were ineffective. Pretreatment of recipients with cyclophosphamide was more effective than irradiation in promoting both engraftment and host B cell suppression. Host allotype suppression endured for several months after cell transfer and was attributable to B cell deletion, as ascertained by the lack of cells which expressed surface M1. In partially suppressed chickens, host G1 was inhibited to a greater degree than M1 allotype. Host recovery was followed by donor B cell rejection when low numbers of donor cells and/or inadequate host conditioning was used. Selective M1 chimerism occurred when limiting numbers of spleen cells were transferred into cyclophosphamide-treated hosts, whereas selective G1 chimerism resulted after the transfer of large numbers of peripheral blood lymphocytes or spleen cells into unconditioned recipients. We consider that these findings can be attributed to a B cell surveillance mechanism which may be similar to that postulated previously to explain resistance to haemopoietic and tumour cells.

The effects of indomethacin on T lymphocyte stimulation.

Immunomodulatory effects of indomethacin on mitogen-induced [3H]thymidine incorporation in cultured pig peripheral blood lymphocytes were demonstrated. In monocyte-containing lymphocyte cultures, indomethacin enhanced lymphocyte stimulation, whereas in monocyte-depleted cultures indomethacin inhibited the response. Indomethacin effects were most marked at suboptimal to optimal concentrations of mitogen and decreased at superoptimal concentrations in both types of culture. The effects of prostaglandin E2 at superoptimal mitogen concentrations were found paradoxically to be stimulatory. The results indicate that arachidonic acid metabolites may have both positive and negative effects on lymphocyte activation.

Broad clonal heterogeneity of antigen-specific CD4+ T-cells localizing at the site of disease during tuberculosis.

The repertoire of CD4+ T-lymphocytes was investigated in six patients affected by tuberculosis, who had a negative PPD skin test at diagnosis. Polyclonal CD4+ T-cell lines from the peripheral blood failed to proliferate to PPD and to the 16- or 38-kDa proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, while CD4+ T-cell lines from the site of disease responded to PPD, and to the 16- and 38-kDa proteins, and derived epitopes in vitro. The repertoire of CD4+ T-cells accumulating at the site of disease was found to be widely heterogeneous as demonstrated by the finding that at least seven different peptides from the 16- and 38-kDa proteins were recognized by every patient. These results indicate that CD4+ T-cells localized at the site of disease in tuberculosis recognize a vast array of M. tuberculosis epitopes.