Structure of the Adenosine A1 Receptor Reveals the Basis for Subtype Selectivity.

The adenosine A1 receptor (A1-AR) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that plays a vital role in cardiac, renal, and neuronal processes but remains poorly targeted by current drugs. We determined a 3.2 Å crystal structure of the A1-AR bound to the selective covalent antagonist, DU172, and identified striking differences to the previously solved adenosine A2A receptor (A2A-AR) structure. Mutational and computational analysis of A1-AR revealed a distinct conformation of the second extracellular loop and a wider extracellular cavity with a secondary binding pocket that can accommodate orthosteric and allosteric ligands. We propose that conformational differences in these regions, rather than amino-acid divergence, underlie drug selectivity between these adenosine receptor subtypes. Our findings provide a molecular basis for AR subtype selectivity with implications for understanding the mechanisms governing allosteric modulation of these receptors, allowing the design of more selective agents for the treatment of ischemia-reperfusion injury, renal pathologies, and neuropathic pain.

Click Chemistry: Reaction Rates and Their Suitability for Biomedical Applications.

Click chemistry has become a commonly used synthetic method due to the simplicity, efficiency, and high selectivity of this class of chemical reactions. Since their initial discovery, further click chemistry methods have been identified and added to the toolbox of click chemistry reactions for biomedical applications. However, selecting the most suitable reaction for a specific application is often challenging, as multiple factors must be considered, including selectivity, reactivity, biocompatibility, and stability. Thus, this review provides an overview of the benefits and limitations of well-established click chemistry reactions with a particular focus on the importance of considering reaction rates, an often overlooked criterion with little available guidance. The importance of understanding each click chemistry reaction beyond simply the reaction speed is discussed comprehensively with reference to recent biomedical research which utilized click chemistry. This review aims to provide a practical resource for researchers to guide the selection of click chemistry classes for different biomedical applications.

Assessment of the Molecular Mechanisms of Action of Novel 4-Phenylpyridine-2-One and 6-Phenylpyrimidin-4-One Allosteric Modulators at the M1 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors.

Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) that target the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptor (M1 mAChR) are potential treatments for cognitive deficits in conditions such as Alzheimer disease and schizophrenia. We recently reported novel 4-phenylpyridine-2-one and 6-phenylpyrimidin-4-one M1 mAChR PAMs with the potential to display different modes of positive allosteric modulation and/or agonism but whose molecular mechanisms of action remain undetermined. The current study compared the pharmacology of three such novel PAMs with the prototypical first-generation PAM, benzyl quinolone carboxylic acid (BQCA), in a recombinant Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line stably expressing the human M1 mAChR. Interactions between the orthosteric agonists and the novel PAMs or BQCA suggested their allosteric effects were solely governed by modulation of agonist affinity. The greatest degree of positive co-operativity was observed with higher efficacy agonists, whereas minimal potentiation was observed when the modulators were tested against the lower efficacy agonist, xanomeline. Each PAM was investigated for its effects on the endogenous agonist ACh on three different signaling pathways [extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 phosphorylation, inositol monophosphate (IP1) accumulation, and ß-arrestin-2 recruitment], revealing that the allosteric potentiation generally tracked with the efficiency of stimulus-response coupling, and that there was little pathway bias in the allosteric effects. Thus, despite the identification of novel allosteric scaffolds targeting the M1 mAChR, the molecular mechanism of action of these compounds is largely consistent with a model of allostery previously described for BQCA, suggesting that this may be a more generalized mechanism for M1 mAChR PAM effects than previously appreciated.

Novel adenosine A(2A) receptor ligands: a synthetic, functional and computational investigation of selected literature adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonists for extending into extracellular space.

Growing evidence has suggested a role in targeting the adenosine A2A receptor for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. The literature compounds KW 6002 (2) and ZM 241385 (5) were used as a starting point from which a series of novel ligands targeting the adenosine A2A receptor were synthesized and tested in a recombinant human adenosine A2A receptor functional assay. In order to further explore these molecules, we investigated the biological effects of assorted linkers attached to different positions on selected adenosine A2A receptor antagonists, and assessed their potential binding modes using molecular docking studies. The results suggest that linking from the phenolic oxygen of selected adenosine A2A receptor antagonists is relatively well tolerated due to the extension towards extracellular space, and leads to the potential of attaching further functionality from this position.

The application of targeted protein degradation technologies to G protein-coupled receptors.

The ubiquitin-proteasome system is one of the major pathways for the degradation of cellular proteins. In recent years, methods have been developed to exploit the ubiquitin-proteasome system to artificially degrade target proteins. Targeted protein degraders are extremely useful as biological tools for discovery research. They have also been developed as novel therapeutics with several targeted protein degraders currently in clinical trials. However, almost all targeted protein degrader technologies have been developed for cytosolic proteins. The G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily is one of the most important classes of drug targets, yet only limited examples of GPCR degradation exist. Here, we review these examples and provide a perspective on the different strategies that have been used to apply targeted protein degradation to GPCRs. We also discuss whether alternative approaches that have been used to degrade other integral membrane proteins could be applied to the degradation of GPCRs.

Design, synthesis and evaluation of novel 2-phenyl-3-(1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyridine positive allosteric modulators for the M4 mAChR.

Translation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) agonists into clinically used therapeutic agents has been difficult due to their poor subtype selectivity. M4 mAChR subtype-selective positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) may provide better therapeutic outcomes, hence investigating their detailed pharmacological properties is crucial to advancing them into the clinic. Herein, we report the synthesis and comprehensive pharmacological evaluation of M4 mAChR PAMs structurally related to 1e, Me-C-c, [11C]MK-6884 and [18F]12. Our results show that small structural changes to the PAMs can result in pronounced differences to baseline, potency (pEC50) and maximum effect (Emax) measures in cAMP assays when compared to the endogenous ligand acetylcholine (ACh) without the addition of the PAMs. Eight selected PAMs were further assessed to determine their binding affinity and potential signalling bias profile between cAMP and ß-arrestin 2 recruitment. These rigorous analyses resulted in the discovery of the novel PAMs, 6k and 6l, which exhibit improved allosteric properties compared to the lead compound, and probative in vivo exposure studies in mice confirmed that they maintain the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, making them more suitable for future preclinical assessment.

The Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Novel 9-Arylxanthenedione-Based Allosteric Modulators for the δ-Opioid Receptor.

Chronic pain and depression are both widely prevalent comorbid medical conditions. While efficient, µ-opioid receptor-based medications are associated with life-threatening side effects, including respiratory depression, dependence, and addiction. The δ-opioid receptor is a promising alternative biological target for chronic pain and depression due to its significantly reduced on-target side effects compared to the µ-opioid receptor. A previous study identified two δ-opioid receptor positive allosteric modulators. Herein, we report the design of five series of compounds targeting previously unexplored regions of the originally described SAR. Analogs were assessed for their ability to potentiate the agonist response of Leu-enkephalin. Of the 30 analogs, compound 6g displayed trends toward enhancing the ERK1/2 phosphorylation signaling compared to cAMP inhibition, while compound 11c exhibited a trend in shifting the signaling bias toward cAMP inhibition. Both 6g and 11c emerged as promising tool compounds toward the design of prospective therapeutics requiring specific downstream signaling attributes.

Examining the Role of the Linker in Bitopic N6-Substituted Adenosine Derivatives Acting as Biased Adenosine A1 Receptor Agonists.

The adenosine A1 receptor is a therapeutic target based on its ability to provide cardioprotection during episodes of myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury. However, the clinical translation of A1R agonists has been hindered by dose-limiting adverse effects (bradycardia and hypotension). Previously, we demonstrated that the bitopic agonist VCP746 (1), consisting of an adenosine pharmacophore linked to an allosteric moiety, can stimulate cardioprotective A1R signaling effects in the absence of unwanted bradycardia. This study maps the structure-activity relationships of 1 through modifications to the linker moiety. Derivatives differing in the flexibility, length, and nature of the linker were assessed, which revealed that the linker is tolerant of several modifications including added rigidity. Ligands featuring 1,4-disubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles were the most biased of the novel analogues but also displayed sub-nanomolar potency in a cAMP accumulation assay at the A2BR. To our knowledge, 10 is the most potent A2BR agonist published to date.

The right tools for the job: the central role for next generation chemical probes and chemistry-based target deconvolution methods in phenotypic drug discovery.

The reconnection of the scientific community with phenotypic drug discovery has created exciting new possibilities to develop therapies for diseases with highly complex biology. It promises to revolutionise fields such as neurodegenerative disease and regenerative medicine, where the development of new drugs has consistently proved elusive. Arguably, the greatest challenge in readopting the phenotypic drug discovery approach exists in establishing a crucial chain of translatability between phenotype and benefit to patients in the clinic. This remains a key stumbling block for the field which needs to be overcome in order to fully realise the potential of phenotypic drug discovery. Excellent quality chemical probes and chemistry-based target deconvolution techniques will be a crucial part of this process. In this review, we discuss the current capabilities of chemical probes and chemistry-based target deconvolution methods and evaluate the next advances necessary in order to fully support phenotypic screening approaches in drug discovery.

New small molecule fluorescent probes for G protein-coupled receptors: valuable tools for drug discovery.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are essential signaling proteins and tractable therapeutic targets. To develop new drug candidates, GPCR drug discovery programs require versatile, sensitive pharmacological tools for ligand binding and compound screening. With the availability of new imaging modalities and proximity-based ligand binding technologies, fluorescent ligands offer many advantages and are increasingly being used, yet labeling small molecules remains considerably more challenging relative to peptides. Focusing on recent fluorescent small molecule studies for family A GPCRs, this review addresses some of the key challenges, synthesis approaches and structure-activity relationship considerations, and discusses advantages of using high-resolution GPCR structures to inform conjugation strategies. While no single approach guarantees successful labeling without loss of affinity or selectivity, the choice of fluorophore, linker type and site of attachment have proved to be critical factors that can significantly affect their utility in drug discovery programs, and as discussed, can sometimes lead to very unexpected results.

Development of Novel 4-Arylpyridin-2-one and 6-Arylpyrimidin-4-one Positive Allosteric Modulators of the M1 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor.

This study investigated the structure-activity relationships of 4-phenylpyridin-2-one and 6-phenylpyrimidin-4-one M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M1 mAChRs) positive allosteric modulators (PAMs). The presented series focuses on modifications to the core and top motif of the reported leads, MIPS1650 (1) and MIPS1780 (2). Profiling of our novel analogues showed that these modifications result in more nuanced effects on the allosteric properties compared to our previous compounds with alterations to the biaryl pendant. Further pharmacological characterisation of the selected compounds in radioligand binding, IP1 accumulation and ß-arrestin 2 recruitment assays demonstrated that, despite primarily acting as affinity modulators, the PAMs displayed different pharmacological properties across the two cellular assays. The novel PAM 7 f is a potential lead candidate for further development of peripherally restricted M1 PAMs, due to its lower blood-brain-barrier (BBB) permeability and improved exposure in the periphery compared to lead 2.

The effect of two selective A1 -receptor agonists and the bitopic ligand VCP746 on heart rate and regional vascular conductance in conscious rats.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Adenosine is a local mediator that regulates physiological and pathological processes via activation of four GPCRs (A1 , A2A , A2B , and A3 ). We have investigated the effect of two A1 -receptor-selective agonists and the novel A1 -receptor bitopic ligand VCP746 on the rat cardiovascular system. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The regional haemodynamic responses of these agonist was investigated in conscious rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (350-450 g) were chronically implanted with pulsed Doppler flow probes on the renal, mesenteric arteries and the descending abdominal aorta and the jugular vein and caudal artery catheterized. Cardiovascular responses were measured following intravenous infusion (3 min each dose) of CCPA (120, 400, and 1,200 ng·kg-1 ·min-1 ), capadenoson or adenosine (30, 100, and 300 µg·kg-1 ·min-1 ), or VCP746 (6, 20, and 60 µg·kg-1 ·min-1 ) following pre-dosing with DPCPX (0.1 mg·kg-1 , i.v.) or vehicle. KEY RESULTS: CCPA produced a significant A1 -receptor-mediated decrease in heart rate that was accompanied by vasoconstrictions in the renal and mesenteric vascular beds but an increase in hindquarters vascular conductance. The partial agonist capadenoson also produced an A1 -receptor-mediated bradycardia. In contrast, VCP746 produced increases in heart rate and renal and mesenteric vascular conductance that were not mediated by A1 -receptors. In vitro studies confirmed that VCP746 had potent agonist activity at both A2A - and A2B -receptors. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: These results suggest VCP746 mediates its cardiovascular effects via activation of A2 rather than A1 adenosine receptors. This has implications for the design of future bitopic ligands that incorporate A1 allosteric ligand moieties.

Probe dependence of allosteric enhancers on the binding affinity of adenosine A1 -receptor agonists at rat and human A1 -receptors measured using NanoBRET.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Adenosine is a local mediator that regulates a number of physiological and pathological processes via activation of adenosine A1 -receptors. The activity of adenosine can be regulated at the level of its target receptor via drugs that bind to an allosteric site on the A1 -receptor. Here, we have investigated the species and probe dependence of two allosteric modulators on the binding characteristics of fluorescent and nonfluorescent A1 -receptor agonists. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: A Nano-luciferase (Nluc) BRET (NanoBRET) methodology was used. This used N-terminal Nluc-tagged A1 -receptors expressed in HEK293T cells in conjunction with both fluorescent A1 -receptor agonists (adenosine and NECA analogues) and a fluorescent antagonist CA200645. KEY RESULTS: PD 81,723 and VCP171 elicited positive allosteric effects on the binding affinity of orthosteric agonists at both the rat and human A1 -receptors that showed clear probe dependence. Thus, the allosteric effect on the highly selective partial agonist capadenoson was much less marked than for the full agonists NECA, adenosine, and CCPA in both species. VCP171 and, to a lesser extent, PD 81,723, also increased the specific binding of three fluorescent A1 -receptor agonists in a species-dependent manner that involved increases in Bmax and pKD . CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: These results demonstrate the power of the NanoBRET ligand-binding approach to study the effect of allosteric ligands on the binding of fluorescent agonists to the adenosine A1 -receptor in intact living cells. Furthermore, our studies suggest that VCP171 and PD 81,723 may switch a proportion of A1 -receptors to an active agonist conformation (R*).

6-Phenylpyrimidin-4-ones as Positive Allosteric Modulators at the M1 mAChR: The Determinants of Allosteric Activity.

Targeting allosteric sites of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) is an enticing approach to overcome the lack of receptor subtype selectivity observed with orthosteric ligands. This is a promising strategy for obtaining novel therapeutics to treat cognitive deficits observed in Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia, while reducing the peripheral side effects such as seen in the current treatment regimes, which are non-subtype selective. We previously described compound 2, the first positive allosteric modulator (PAM) of the M1 mAChR based on a 6-phenylpyrimidin-4-one scaffold, which has been further developed in this study. Herein, we present the synthesis, characterization, and pharmacological evaluation of a series of 6-phenylpyrimidin-4-ones with modifications to the 4-(1-methylpyrazol-4-yl)benzyl pendant. Selected compounds, BQCA, 1, 2, 9i, 13, 14b, 15c, and 15d, were further profiled in terms of their allosteric affinity, cooperativity with acetylcholine (ACh), and intrinsic efficacy. Additionally, 2 and 9i were tested in mouse primary cortical neurons, displaying various degrees of intrinsic agonism and potentiation of the acetylcholine response. Overall, the results suggest that the pendant moiety is important for allosteric binding affinity and the direct agonistic efficacy of the 6-phenylpyrimidin-4-one based M1 mAChR PAMs.

A Structure-Activity Relationship Study of Bitopic N6-Substituted Adenosine Derivatives as Biased Adenosine A1 Receptor Agonists.

The adenosine A1 receptor (A1AR) is a potential novel therapeutic target for myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. However, to date, clinical translation of prototypical A1AR agonists has been hindered due to dose limiting adverse effects. Recently, we demonstrated that the biased bitopic agonist 1, consisting of an adenosine pharmacophore linked to an allosteric moiety, could stimulate cardioprotective A1AR signaling in the absence of unwanted bradycardia. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the structure-activity relationship of compound 1 biased agonism. A series of novel derivatives of 1 were synthesized and pharmacologically profiled. Modifications were made to the orthosteric adenosine pharmacophore, linker, and allosteric 2-amino-3-benzoylthiophene pharmacophore to probe the structure-activity relationships, particularly in terms of biased signaling, as well as A1AR activity and subtype selectivity. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that the allosteric moiety, particularly the 4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl substituent of the thiophene scaffold, is important in conferring bitopic ligand bias at the A1AR.

Probing the binding site of novel selective positive allosteric modulators at the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor.

Subtype-selective allosteric modulation of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptor (M1 mAChR) is an attractive approach for the treatment of numerous disorders, including cognitive deficits. The discovery of benzyl quinolone carboxylic acid, BQCA, a selective M1 mAChR positive allosteric modulator (PAM), spurred the subsequent development of newer generation M1 PAMs representing diverse chemical scaffolds, different pharmacodynamic properties and, in some instances, improved pharmacokinetics. Key exemplar molecules from such efforts include PF-06767832 (N-((3R,4S)-3-hydroxytetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)-5-methyl-4-(4-(thiazol-4-yl)benzyl)pyridine-2-carboxamide), VU6004256 (4,6-difluoro-N-(1S,2S)-2-hydroxycyclohexyl-1-((6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyridine-3-yl)methyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxamide) and MIPS1780 (3-(2-hydroxycyclohexyl)-6-(2-((4-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-benzyl)oxy)phenyl)pyrimidin-4(3H)-one). Given these diverse scaffolds and pharmacodynamics, the current study combined pharmacological analysis and site-directed mutagenesis to explore the potential binding site and function of newer M1 mAChR PAMs relative to BQCA. Interestingly, the mechanism of action of the novel PAMs was consistent with a common model of allostery, as previously described for BQCA. Key residues involved in the activity of BQCA, including Y179 in the second extracellular loop (ECL) and W4007.35 in transmembrane domain (TM) 7, were critical for the activity of all PAMs tested. Overall, our data indicate that structurally distinct PAMs share a similar binding site with BQCA, specifically, an extracellular allosteric site defined by residues in TM2, TM7 and ECL2. These findings provide valuable insights into the structural basis underlying modulator binding, cooperativity and signaling at the M1 mAChR, which is essential for the rational design of PAMs with tailored pharmacological properties.

Synthesis and Pharmacological Evaluation of Heterocyclic Carboxamides: Positive Allosteric Modulators of the M1 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor with Weak Agonist Activity and Diverse Modulatory Profiles.

Targeting allosteric sites at M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors is a promising strategy for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Positive allosteric modulators not only may potentiate binding and/or signaling of the endogenous agonist acetylcholine (ACh) but also may possess direct agonist activity (thus referred to as PAM-agonists). Recent studies suggest that PAM-agonists with robust intrinsic efficacy are more likely to produce adverse effects in vivo. Herein we present the synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of a series of pyrrole-3-carboxamides with a diverse range of allosteric profiles. We proposed structural modifications at top, core, or pendant moieties of a prototypical molecule. Although generally there was a correlation between the degree of agonist activity and the modulatory potency of the PAMs, some derivatives displayed weak intrinsic efficacy yet maintained strong allosteric modulation. We also identified molecules with the ability to potentiate mainly the affinity or both affinity and efficacy of ACh.

Guidelines for the Synthesis of Small-Molecule Irreversible Probes Targeting G†Protein-Coupled Receptors.

Irreversible probes have been proven to be useful pharmacological tools in the study of structural and functional features in drug receptor pharmacology. They have been demonstrated to be particularly valuable for the isolation and purification of receptors. Furthermore, irreversible probes are helpful tools for the identification and characterization of binding sites, thereby supporting the advancement of rational drug design. In this Minireview, we provide insight into universal strategies and guidelines to successfully synthesize irreversible probes that target G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). We provide an overview of commonly used chemoreactive and photoreactive groups, and make a comparison of their properties and potential applications. Furthermore, there is a particular focus on synthetic approaches to introduce these reactive groups based on commercially available reagents.