Analysis of the PPARD Gene Expression Level Changes in Football Players in Response to the Training Cycle.

The PPARD gene codes protein that belongs to the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) family engaged in a variety of biological processes, including lipid metabolism in muscle cells. In this study, we assess the relationship between PPARD gene expression lipid metabolism parameters and the variation of the PPARD gene expression before (T1) and after 12 hours of training (T2) sessions in a group of football players. Peripheral blood lymphocytes were obtained from 22 football players (17.5±0.7 years, 178±0.7 cm, 68.05±9.18 kg). The PPARD gene expression, analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), was significantly higher after T2 (p = 0.0006). Moreover, at the end of the training cycle, there was a significant decrease in relative fat tissue (FAT) (%) (p = 0.01) and absolute FAT (kg) (p = 0.01). A negative correlation was observed between absolute FAT (kg) and PPARD gene expression level in T2 (p = 0.03). The levels of cholesterol and triglyceride (TG) fractions were not significantly different (p >0.05) before and after training. No significant relationship between PPARD expression and cholesterol or TG levels was found. We found that physical training affects PPARD expression. Moreover, the negative correlation between PPARD expression and absolute FAT (kg) level may be indicative of the contribution of PPARD in metabolic adaptation to increased lipid uptake that can be used to control the body composition of athletes.

Gene doping in sport - perspectives and risks.

In the past few years considerable progress regarding the knowledge of the human genome map has been achieved. As a result, attempts to use gene therapy in patients' management are more and more often undertaken. The aim of gene therapy is to replace defective genes in vivo and/or to promote the long-term endogenous synthesis of deficient protein. In vitro studies improve the production of human recombinant proteins, such as insulin (INS), growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and erythropoietin (EPO), which could have therapeutic application. Unfortunately, genetic methods developed for therapeutic purposes are increasingly being used in competitive sports. Some new substances (e.g., antibodies against myostatin or myostatin blockers) might be used in gene doping in athletes. The use of these substances may cause an increase of body weight and muscle mass and a significant improvement of muscle strength. Although it is proven that uncontrolled manipulation of genetic material and/or the introduction of recombinant proteins may be associated with health risks, athletes are increasingly turning to banned gene doping. At the same time, anti-doping research is undertaken in many laboratories around the world to try to develop and refine ever newer techniques for gene doping detection in sport. Thanks to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and other sports organizations there is a hope for real protection of athletes from adverse health effects of gene doping, which at the same time gives a chance to sustain the idea of fair play in sport.

Aerobic and anaerobic power in relation to age and physical activity in 354 men aged 20-88 years.

We examined simultaneously the influence of age as well as both current and historical habitual physical activity (PA) on aerobic (physical working capacity - PWC) and anaerobic (Pmax) power in 354 men aged 20.2-87.6 yrs. All the participants performed the graded aerobic exercise test and 8-second explosive power tests on a bicycle ergometer. Current leisure time physical activity (LTPA) and lifetime historical LTPA were assessed. The decline in Pmax/kg (10.3% per decade) was higher than in PWC/kg (7.5% per decade). Correlation coefficients for current LTPA and aerobic indices were higher than for current LTPA and anaerobic indices. In a multiple stepwise regression, current LTPA had the main effect on PWC/kg, whereas age had the main effect on Pmax/kg. Aerobic power was related to all measures of historical PA questionnaire, while anaerobic power - only to those historical measures which pertained to adolescence and younger years of adulthood. We conclude that the age-associated decline in anaerobic power is steeper than that of aerobic power. Habitual endurance-type LTPA increases aerobic but not anaerobic fitness throughout the adult lifespan. Anaerobic fitness indices are higher in young active vs sedentary men but this difference is not discernible as early as in the middle age.

Importance of characteristics and modalities of physical activity and exercise in the management of cardiovascular health in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors: recommendations from the EACPR. Part II.

In a previous paper, as the first of a series of three on the importance of characteristics and modalities of physical activity (PA) and exercise in the management of cardiovascular health within the general population, we concluded that, in the population at large, PA and aerobic exercise capacity clearly are inversely associated with increased cardiovascular disease risk and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality and that a dose­response curve on cardiovascular outcome has been demonstrated in most studies. More and more evidence is accumulated that engaging in regular PA and exercise interventions are essential components for reducing the severity of cardiovascular risk factors, such as obesity and abdominal fat, high BP, metabolic risk factors, and systemic inflammation. However, it is less clear whether and which type of PA and exercise intervention (aerobic exercise, dynamic resistive exercise, or both) or characteristic of exercise (frequency, intensity, time or duration, and volume) would yield more benefit for each separate risk factor. The present paper, therefore, will review and make recommendations for PA and exercise training in the management of cardiovascular health in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors. The guidance offered in this series of papers is aimed at medical doctors, health practitioners, kinesiologists, physiotherapists and exercise physiologists, politicians, public health policy makers, and individual members of the public. Based on previous and the current literature overviews, recommendations from the European Association on Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation are formulated regarding type, volume, and intensity of PA and regarding appropriate risk evaluation during exercise in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors.

Physical activity and upper respiratory tract infections.

We explored the relationship of current and lifetime physical activity (PA) with upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) symptomatology in 142 male volunteers aged 33 to 90. They participated in baseline and one-year follow-up examinations and fulfilled the log books for daily recording of URTI symptomatology during the whole year. PA was assessed by the Seven Day Recall PA Questionnaire and the Historical Leisure Activity Questionnaire. Number of URTI episodes per year and the number of days with URTI per year were significantly inversely associated with the follow-up 7-Day Recall Hard score (rho = - 0.21; p = 0.013 and rho = - 0.18; p = 0.032, respectively). In logistic regression model, after adjustment for age and anthropometric data, the subjects with high follow-up 7-Day Recall Hard score (dichotomised as high vs. low) had a lower probability of having at least 2 URTI episodes per year (OR = 0.38; CI = 0.18 - 0.78), lower probability of having at least 3 URTI episodes per year (OR = 0.42; CI = 0.20 - 0.87), and lower probability of having at least 15 days with URTI (OR = 0.36; CI = 0.15 - 0.88). URTI symptomatology was not related to cardiorespiratory fitness or any measures of the historical PA questionnaire. We conclude that in middle-aged and older men the symptomatology of URTI over long periods of time is inversely related to current but not to lifetime PA.

Long-term effects of different physical activity levels on coronary heart disease risk factors in middle-aged men.

In order to define the amount of physical activity appropriate in primary prevention of coronary heart disease (CHD), we have compared the effects during 5 years of physical activity in four groups of middle-aged men with different but stable approximate metabolic costs of leisure time sports activities (AMCSA): sedentary (n = 40; 0 kcal per week), low activity (n = 31; 1-999 kcal per week), moderate activity (n = 56; 1,000-1,999 kcal per week), and high activity (n = 71; > or = 2,000 kcal per week). Time related increase of body mass and BMI was more pronounced in lower activity groups. Changes in HDL cholesterol were more favourable in the high activity group as compared to sedentary and low activity groups. The increase of diastolic blood pressure (DBP) in the sedentary group was statistically significantly different from the decrease of DBP observed in both moderate and high activity groups. We conclude that favourable long-term stabilization of most coronary risk factors is achievable with physical activity energy expenditure above 1,000 kcal per week. Physical activity-related energy expenditure > or = 2,000 kcal per week is associated with some additional benefits, especially with a favourable modification of HDL cholesterol level.