Twelve tips for practical clinical skills coaching.

Coaching is rapidly evolving in clinical medicine, including for clinical skills (CS) learning. Yet a schema is needed for how to coach students in the many CS that are pivotal to the practice of medicine. These twelve tips aim to provide practical strategies for teachers and educators to coach students for CS learning. The tips cover many important aspects of CS coaching, including establishing a safe space, ways to prepare to coach, setting goals, guiding a coaching relationship, fostering coaching conversations, and in-person or virtual approaches. Together, the tips align as seven key steps of an overall coaching process. The twelve tips apply equally to coaching struggling students and all students seeking to improve CS and offer a guide for coaching at an individual or program level.

A Case of Leukocytoclastic Vasculitis Following SARS-COV-2 Vaccination.

BACKGROUND: Although vaccination against coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been proven generally safe, rare but potentially serious adverse reactions do occur. Leukocytoclastic vasculitis (LCV) is a small-vessel vasculitis that has been associated with other immunizations, but, to our knowledge, has not been previously reported in association with vaccines directed against SARS-CoV-2. CASE REPORT: We report the case of a 22-year-old man with no known past medical history who presented to the Emergency Department with 2 days of migratory arthritis in his ankles and palpable purpura on his bilateral lower extremities, occurring 10 days after receiving the Johnson & Johnson SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. The patient's clinical presentation was suggestive of leukocytoclastic vasculitis, and this diagnosis was confirmed on skin biopsy. Why Should an Emergency Physician Be Aware of This? Recognition of vasculitides is important for timely treatment and prevention of complications. In a patient presenting with palpable purpura after immunization against SARS-CoV-2, LCV should be promptly considered and worked up by the Emergency Physician, though management is most often entirely outpatient and the clinical course is typically mild and self-resolving.

Guillain-Barré Syndrome Presenting as Facial Diplegia after COVID-19 Vaccination: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND: Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) is a rapidly progressive immune-mediated polyneuropathy often associated with an antecedent infectious illness or vaccination. The classic presentation of GBS is characterized by ascending limb weakness and numbness with loss of reflexes. However, atypical variants involving the face and arms or with purely sensory symptoms also exist. In up to 30% of cases, GBS progresses to respiratory failure, with patients requiring mechanical ventilation. CASE REPORT: We report a case of atypical GBS occurring after Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination in an otherwise healthy 38-year-old man. The patient's clinical presentation was characterized by bilateral hand and foot paresthesias, dysarthria, bilateral facial weakness, and an absence of classic ascending limb weakness. Albuminocytological dissociation within the cerebrospinal fluid was suggestive of GBS. The patient received intravenous immunoglobulin therapy, with modest improvement in his symptoms at the time of his discharge from the hospital. Why Should an Emergency PhysicianBe Aware of This? Patients with GBS are at risk for life-threatening complications, including respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation. It is critical for emergency physicians to be aware of the manifold presentations of GBS for early recognition and treatment. This may be of particular importance in the context of a worldwide vaccination campaign in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Yield of CT Pulmonary Angiography in the Emergency Department When Providers Override Evidence-based Clinical Decision Support.

Purpose To determine the frequency of, and yield after, provider overrides of evidence-based clinical decision support (CDS) for ordering computed tomographic (CT) pulmonary angiography in the emergency department (ED). Materials and Methods This HIPAA-compliant, institutional review board-approved study was performed at a tertiary care, academic medical center ED with approximately 60 000 annual visits and included all patients who were suspected of having pulmonary embolism (PE) and who underwent CT pulmonary angiography between January 1, 2011, and August 31, 2013. The requirement to obtain informed consent was waived. Each CT order for pulmonary angiography was exposed to CDS on the basis of the Wells criteria. For patients with a Wells score of 4 or less, CDS alerts suggested d-dimer testing because acute PE is highly unlikely in these patients if d-dimer levels are normal. The yield of CT pulmonary angiography (number of positive PE diagnoses/total number of CT pulmonary angiographic examinations) was compared in patients in whom providers overrode CDS alerts (by performing CT pulmonary angiography in patients with a Wells score ≤4 and a normal d-dimer level or no d-dimer testing) (override group) and those in whom providers followed Wells criteria (CT pulmonary angiography only in patients with Wells score >4 or ≤4 with elevated d-dimer level) (adherent group). A validated natural language processing tool identified positive PE diagnoses, with subsegmental and/or indeterminate diagnoses removed by means of chart review. Statistical analysis was performed with the χ2 test, the Student t test, and logistic regression. Results Among 2993 CT pulmonary angiography studies in 2655 patients, 563 examinations had a Wells score of 4 or less but did not undergo d-dimer testing and 26 had a Wells score of 4 or less and had normal d-dimer levels. The yield of CT pulmonary angiography was 4.2% in the override group (25 of 589 studies, none with a normal d-dimer level) and 11.2% in the adherent group (270 of 2404 studies) (P < .001). After adjustment for the risk factor differences between the two groups, the odds of an acute PE finding were 51.3% lower when providers overrode alerts than when they followed CDS guidelines. Comparison of the two groups including only patients unlikely to have PE led to similar results. Conclusion The odds of an acute PE finding in the ED when providers adhered to evidence presented in CDS were nearly double those seen when providers overrode CDS alerts. Most overrides were due to the lack of d-dimer testing in patients unlikely to have PE. © RSNA, 2016.

Clinical and financial impact of removing creatine kinase-MB from the routine testing menu in the emergency setting.

CONTEXT: Cardiac troponins T and I have replaced creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB) as the criterion standard for diagnosing myocardial injury. However, many laboratories still routinely perform a high volume of CK-MB testing in conjunction with troponin. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to study the clinical and financial impact of removing CK-MB from the routine emergency department (ED) test menu at a large academic medical center. METHODS: Creatine kinase-MB was removed from ED ordering templates and laboratory requisitions (ie, intervention), although the test could still be manually ordered. Data for creatine kinase (CK), CK-MB, and troponin T (TnT) specimens ordered during a 12-month period (6 months preintervention and 6 months postintervention) (n = 14571) was downloaded from our laboratory information system. All specimens with (1) normal TnT (ie, <0.01 ng/mL), (2) elevated CK-MB (ie, >6.6 ng/mL), and (3) elevated CK-MB index (ie, >5) were considered discrepant and independently reviewed by 2 ED clinicians for the presence of an acute coronary syndrome and for documentation of final diagnosis. Creatine kinase, CK-MB, and TnT ED volumes preintervention and postintervention were analyzed to assess laboratory cost savings. RESULTS: Of the 6444 cases included in the analysis, only 17 were discrepant. Of all 17 cases, no patients were diagnosed with acute coronary syndrome. After removing CK-MB from the templates and requisitions, CK-MB and CK volumes decreased by 80% and 76%, respectively, translating to annual reagent cost savings of approximately $47000. CONCLUSIONS: Creatine kinase-MB can be removed from the routine ED test menu without adversely affecting patient care. In addition, substantial cost savings can be achieved by reducing unnecessary CK-MB testing and associated CK orders.

Radiology utilization in the emergency department: trends of the past 2 decades.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of our study was to assess radiology utilization trends for emergency department (ED) patients from 1993 through 2012. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this retrospective study, we reviewed radiology utilization at a 793-bed quaternary care academic medical center from January 1, 1993, through December 31, 2012, during which time the number of ED patient visits increased from approximately 48,000 to 61,000, and determined the number of imaging studies by modality (radiography, sonography, CT, MRI, other) and associated relative value units (RVUs). We used linear regression to assess for trends in the number of imaging RVUs and imaging accession numbers, our primary and secondary outcomes, respectively. RESULTS: The total RVUs attributable to ED imaging per 1000 ED visits increased 208% from 1993 to 2007 (p < 0.0001) and then decreased 24.7% by 2012 (p = 0.0019). The total number of imaging accession numbers per 1000 ED visits increased 47.8% from 1993 until 2005 (p = 0.0003) and then decreased 26.9% by 2012 (p < 0.0001). CT RVUs per 1000 ED visits increased 493% until 2007 (p < 0.0001) and then decreased 33.4% (p < 0.0001), and MRI RVUs increased 2475% until 2008 (p < 0.0001) and then decreased 20.6% (p < 0.0032). Sonography RVUs increased 75.7% over the study period (p < 0.0001), whereas radiography RVUs decreased 28.1% (p = 0.0009). CONCLUSION: After a period of substantial increase from 1993 to 2007, volume-adjusted ED imaging RVUs declined from 2007 through 2012, largely because of the decreasing use of CT and MRI. Additional studies are needed to determine the causes of this decline, which may include quality improvement activities, advocacy for appropriateness by leadership, concerns regarding radiation exposure and cost, and health information technology interventions.

Death or revascularization among nonadmitted ED patients with low-positive vs negative troponin T results.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Compare outcomes among emergency department (ED) patients with low-positive (0.01-0.02 ng/mL) vs negative troponin T. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of nonadmitted ED patients with troponin testing at a tertiary-care hospital. Trained research assistants used a structured tool to review charts from all nonadmitted ED patients with troponin testing, 12/1/2009 to 11/30/2010. Outcomes of death and coronary revascularization were assessed at 30 days and 6 months via medical record review, Social Security Death Index searches, and patient contact. RESULTS: There were 57596 ED visits; with 33388 (58%) discharged immediately, 6410 (11%) assigned to the observation unit, and 17798 (31%) admitted or other. Troponin was measured in 2684 (6.7%) of the nonadmitted cases. Troponin was negative in 2523 (94.0%), low positive in 78 (2.9%), and positive (≥0.03 ng/mL) in 83 (3.1%). Of troponin-negative cases, 0.8% (95% CI, 0.4-1.1%) died or were revascularized by 30 days, vs 2.8% (95% CI, 0.0-6.7%) of low-positive cases (risk difference [RD], 2.0%; 95% CI, -1.8 to 5.9%). At 6 months, the rates were 1.7% (95% CI, 1.1-2.2%) and 12.9% (95% CI, 5.0-20.7%) (RD, 11%; 95% CI, 3.3-19.1%). Death alone at 30 days occurred in 0.4% (95% CI, 0.1-0.6%) vs 1.3% (95% CI, 0.0-3.8%) (RD, 0.9%; 95% CI, -1.6 to 3.4%). Death at 6 months occurred in 1.2% (95% CI, 0.8-1.6%) vs 11.7% (95% CI, 4.5-18.9%) (RD, 10%; 95% CI, 3.3-17.7%). CONCLUSION: Among patients not initially admitted, rates of death and coronary revascularization differed insignificantly at 30 days but significantly at 6 months. Detailed inspection of our results reveals that the bulk of the added risk at 6 months was due to non-cardiac mortality.

Evaluation of the diagnostic performance of heart-type fatty acid binding protein in the BWH-TIMI ED chest pain study.

Chest pain is one of the most common reasons for presentation to the Emergency Department and the ability to rapidly and correctly diagnose the minority of patients who have a myocardial infarction is of critical importance. We assessed the diagnostic performance of a multimarker strategy using heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP) in combination with a contemporary sensitive troponin (cTn) assay. We measured H-FABP (Randox) and a sensitive cTn (TnI-Ultra, Siemens) at baseline in 343 patients with chest pain enrolled in the prospective BWH-TIMI ED chest pain study. Final presenting diagnosis was adjudicated using all diagnostic data, including the local cTnI results, but reviewers were blinded to H-FABP and the sensitive cTn assays. The diagnostic accuracy of H-FABP and local cTn together (AUC 0.962) was superior to local cTn alone (AUC 0.910, p = 0.0009) with an especially marked improvement in early presenters (AUC 0.983 vs. 0.840, p = 0.0098). In contrast, when combined with the sensitive cTn assay, there was no significant difference in the AUC with H-FABP as compared with the sensitive cTn alone, either in the overall cohort (AUC 0.963 vs. 0.956, p = 0.23) or in early presenters (AUC 0.999 for both). In early presenters, the addition of H-FABP resulted in a NPV of 100% when combined with either the local or sensitive cTn assay. In our study, the addition of H-FABP significantly enhanced the sensitivity and accuracy of diagnosis as compared to a prior-generation troponin assay alone, especially in patients who presented early. H-FABP but did improve overall diagnostic accuracy when added to a current-generation sensitive troponin assay; however, their combination offered the best NPV in early presenters. Further studies are needed to determine the utility a very rapid "rule out" of MI with a single blood draw of troponin and H-FABP at presentation.

The provision of diagnosis at emergency department discharge: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVES: Understanding the cause of patients' symptoms usually involves identification of a pathological diagnosis. Anecdotal reports suggest that emergency department (ED) providers do not prioritise giving pathological diagnoses, and often reiterate the patient's symptom as the discharge 'diagnosis'. Our pilot study sought to identify the proportion of patients at a large teaching hospital who receive a symptomatic versus pathological diagnosis at ED discharge. METHODS: We performed a chart review of all adult patients who were discharged from an urban ED in the USA, with an 88,000 annual visit volume. All charts of patients presenting with the three most common ED chief complaints (chest pain, abdominal pain and headache) were reviewed by two reviewers. Charts were coded as either symptomatic or pathological diagnosis based on the discharge diagnosis provided by the attending physician. Those with discrepant coding by the two reviewers were subject to review by a third adjudicator. RESULTS: 797 charts met the inclusion criteria. Five charts (0.6%) were coded differently by the two reviewers; a discussion with the third reviewer resulted in consensus in all cases. For patients presenting with chest pain, abdominal pain and headache, the proportion that received a pathological ED discharge diagnosis were 17%, 43% and 41%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: According to our pilot study, most patients are discharged from the ED without a pathological diagnosis that explains the likely cause of their symptoms. Future studies will investigate whether this finding is consistent across institutions, and whether provision of a pathological diagnosis affects clinical outcomes and patient satisfaction.

A pilot clinical skills coaching program to reimagine remediation: a cohort study.

Background New approaches are needed to improve and destigmatize remediation in undergraduate medical education (UME).  The COVID-19 pandemic magnified the need to support struggling learners to ensure competency and readiness for graduate medical education (GME).  Clinical skills (CS) coaching is an underutilized approach that may mitigate the stigma of remedial learning. Methods A six-month CS coaching pilot was conducted at Harvard Medical School (HMS) as a destigmatized remedial learning environment for clerkship and post-clerkship students identified as 'at risk' based on objective structured clinical examinations (OSCE).  The pilot entailed individual and group coaching with five faculty, direct bedside observation of CS, and standardized patient encounters with video review. Strengths-based coaching principles and appreciative inquiry were emphasized.  Results Twenty-three students participated in the pilot: 14 clerkship students (cohort 1) and 9 post-clerkship students (cohort 2).  All clerkship students (cohort 1) demonstrated sustained improvement in CS across three OSCEs compared to baseline: at pilot close, at 6-months post pilot, and at 21-24 months post-pilot all currently graduating students (10/10, 100%) passed the summative OSCE, an HMS graduation requirement. All post-clerkship students (cohort 2) passed the HMS graduation OSCE (9/9,100%). Feedback survey results included clerkship students (9/14; 64%) and post-clerkship students (7/9; 78%); all respondents unanimously agreed that individual coaching was "impactful to my clinical learning and practice". Faculty and leadership fully supported the pilot as a destigmatized and effective approach to remediation.  Conclusion Remediation has an essential and growing role in medical schools.  CS coaching for remedial learning can reduce stigma, foster a growth mindset, and support sustained progress for 'at risk' early clerkship through final year students. An "implementation template" with suggested tools and timelines can be locally adapted to guide CS coaching for UME remediation. The CS coaching pilot model is feasible and can be generalized to many UME programs.

Finding acute coronary syndrome with serial troponin testing for rapid assessment of cardiac ischemic symptoms (FAST-TRAC): a study protocol.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the utility of a highly sensitive troponin assay when utilized in the emergency department. METHODS: The FAST-TRAC study prospectively enrolled >1,500 emergency department patients with suspected acute coronary syndrome within 6 hours of symptom onset and 2 hours of emergency department presentation. It has several unique features that are not found in the majority of studies evaluating troponin. These include a very early presenting population in whom prospective data collection of risk score parameters and the physician's clinical impression of the probability of acute coronary syndrome before any troponin data were available. Furthermore, two gold standard diagnostic definitions were determined by a pair of cardiologists reviewing two separate data sets; one that included all local troponin testing results and a second that excluded troponin testing so that diagnosis was based solely on clinical grounds. By this method, a statistically valid head-to-head comparison of contemporary and high sensitivity troponin testing is obtainable. Finally, because of a significant delay in sample processing, a unique ability to define the molecular stability of various troponin assays is possible. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT00880802.

Hospital variability in emergency department length of stay for adult patients receiving psychiatric consultation: a prospective study.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: We ascertain the components of emergency department (ED) length of stay for adult patients receiving psychiatric evaluation and to examine their variability across 5 hospitals within a health care system. METHODS: This was a prospective study of 1,092 adults treated between June 2008 and May 2009. Research staff abstracted length of stay and clinical information from the medical records. Clinicians completed a time log for each patient contact. Main outcomes were median times for the overall ED length of stay and its 4 components, or time from triage to request for psychiatric evaluation, request to start of psychiatric evaluation, start to completion of psychiatric evaluation with a disposition decision, and disposition decision to discharge from the ED. RESULTS: The overall median length of stay was more than 8 hours. Median times for the components were 1.8 hours from triage to request, 15 minutes from request to start of psychiatric evaluation, 75 minutes from start of psychiatric evaluation to disposition decision, and nearly 3 hours from disposition decision to ED discharge. The median disposition decision to discharge time was substantially shorter for patients who went home (40 minutes) than for patients who were admitted (2.5 hours) or transferred for psychiatric admission at other facilities (6.3 hours). When adjustments for patient and clinical factors were made, differences in ED length of stay persisted between hospitals. CONCLUSION: ED length of stay for psychiatric patients varied greatly between hospitals, highlighting differences in the organization of psychiatric services and inpatient bed availability. Findings may not generalize to other settings or populations.

Management strategies for patients with low-risk chest pain in the emergency department.

OPINION STATEMENT: There is abundant evidence to guide the management of chest pain patients with a confirmed or reasonably suspected diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome (ACS). But when it comes to the low-risk chest pain patient in the emergency department, there is limited evidence to support one approach over another. As a result, the evaluation of low-risk chest pain represents a distinct challenge for the emergency physician. Missing a diagnosis of ACS is certainly undesirable. However, the overuse of technology can result in misleading test results in populations with a low incidence of coronary disease. In this article, we dispel several myths surrounding low-risk chest pain and put forward a number of common-sense recommendations. We endorse taking a focused but thorough chest pain history; encourage the use of serial electrocardiogram, particularly for patients with ongoing or changing symptoms; comment on the interpretation of cardiac biomarkers in the era of highly sensitive troponin assays, drawing a distinction between myocardial injury and myocardial infarction; discuss the role of coronary computed tomography angiography as a test for coronary artery disease, rather than for ACS; and caution against the reflexive use of provocative testing in low-risk chest pain patients.

Comparison of a single end point to determine optimal initial warfarin dosing (5 mg versus 10 mg) for venous thromboembolism.

There remains considerable controversy regarding optimal initial warfarin dosing in patients with acute venous thromboembolism. Therefore, an open-label, randomized trial comparing 2 warfarin initiation nomograms (5 vs 10 mg) was conducted in patients with acute venous thromboembolism. All participants received fondaparinux for > or = 5 days as a "bridge" to warfarin. The primary end point was defined as the number of days necessary to achieve 2 consecutive international normalized ratio laboratory test values > 1.9. A total of 50 patients were enrolled and randomly assigned to each of the treatment arms. The median time to 2 consecutive international normalized ratios was 5 days in the 2 groups. There was no statistical difference in achieving the primary end point using either the 5- or the 10-mg nomogram (p = 0.69). These results should provide clinicians with increased warfarin dosing options in patients presenting with acute venous thromboembolism.

Impact of point-of-care B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) measurement on medical decision-making for older emergency department patients with dyspnea.

Measurement of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) has been shown to aid in the Emergency Department (ED) diagnosis of heart failure. We sought to determine how point-of-care BNP measurement influences real-world medical decision-making. Using a commercially available, point-of-care assay, BNP levels were measured in a convenience sample of ED patients over the age of 55 years who complained of dyspnea. Blinded to BNP results, emergency physicians were asked to formulate a differential diagnosis and management plan for each patient. Immediately thereafter, BNP results were disclosed and the physicians were asked what (if any) decisions they would change. With physicians blinded to BNP results, 24 of 88 patients (27%) were given a primary diagnosis of heart failure, and 18 patients (20%) were given a secondary or alternative diagnosis of heart failure. For the former group, disclosure of BNP results resulted in no changes in diagnosis or management. For the latter group, disclosure of BNP results caused heart failure to become the primary diagnosis in 4 patients (22%), and led to five changes in medical management. For the 46 patients initially given neither a primary nor secondary diagnosis of heart failure, disclosure of BNP results caused heart failure to become the primary diagnosis in one patient (2%) and a secondary diagnosis in 4 patients (9%), and led to five changes in medical management. Thus, for ED patients with a primary clinical diagnosis of heart failure, BNP testing had no impact on medical decision-making. However, for other patients with dyspnea, elevated BNP levels did influence medical decision-making, particularly when heart failure was in the differential diagnosis.

Implementation of a Risk Stratification and Management Pathway for Acute Chest Pain in the Emergency Department.

OBJECTIVES: Chest pain is a common complaint in the emergency department, and a small but important minority represents an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Variation in diagnostic workup, risk stratification, and management may result in underuse, misuse, and/or overuse of resources. METHODS: From July to October 2014, we conducted a prospective cohort study in an academic medical center by implementing a Standardized Clinical Assessment and Management Plan (SCAMP) for chest pain based on the HEART score. In addition to capturing adherence to the SCAMP algorithm and reasons for any deviations, we measured troponin sample timing; rates of stress test utilization; length of stay (LOS); and 30-day rates of revascularization, ACS, and death. RESULTS: We identified 239 patients during the enrollment period who were eligible to enter the SCAMP, of whom 97 patients were entered into the pathway. Patients were risk stratified into one of 3 risk tiers: high (n = 3), intermediate (n = 40), and low (n = 54). Among low-risk patients, recommendations for troponin testing were not followed in 56%, and 11% received stress tests contrary to the SCAMP recommendation. None of the low-risk patients had elevated troponin measurements, and none had an abnormal stress test. Mean LOS in low-risk patients managed with discordant plans was 22:26 h/min, compared with 9:13 h/min in concordant patients (P < 0.001). Mean LOS in intermediate-risk patients with stress testing was 25:53 h/min, compared with 7:55 h/min for those without (P < 0.001). At 30 days, 10% of intermediate-risk patients and 0% of low-risk patients experienced an ACS event (risk difference 10% [0.7%-19%]); none experienced revascularization or death. The most frequently cited reason for deviation from the SCAMP was lack of confidence in the tool. CONCLUSIONS: Compliance with SCAMP recommendations for low- and intermediate-risk patients was poor, largely due to lack of confidence in the tool. However, in our study population, outcomes suggest that deviation from the SCAMP yielded no additional clinical benefit while significantly prolonging emergency department LOS.

Diagnostic implications of an elevated troponin in the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the proportion of initial troponin (cTn) elevations associated with Type I MI versus other cardiovascular and noncardiovascular diagnoses in an emergency department (ED) and whether or not a relationship exists between the cTn level and the likelihood of Type I MI. BACKGROUND: In the ED, cTn is used as a screening test for myocardial injury. However, the differential diagnosis for an initial positive cTn result is not clear. METHODS: Hospital medical records were retrospectively reviewed for visits associated with an initial positive troponin I-ultra (cTnI), ≥0.05 µg/L. Elevated cTnI levels were stratified into low (0.05-0.09), medium (0.1-0.99), or high (≥1.0). Discharge diagnoses were classified into 3 diagnostic groups (Type I MI, other cardiovascular, or noncardiovascular). RESULTS: Of 23,731 ED visits, 4,928 (21%) had cTnI testing. Of those tested, 16.3% had initial cTnI ≥0.05. Among those with elevated cTn, 11% were classified as Type I MI, 34% had other cardiovascular diagnoses, and 55% had a noncardiovascular diagnosis. Type I MI was more common with high cTnI levels (41% incidence) than among subjects with medium (9%) or low (6%). CONCLUSION: A positive cTn is most likely a noncardiovascular diagnosis, but Type I MI is far more common with cTnI levels ≥1.0.