Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis is common among patients with presumed tuberculosis relapse in Ghana.

Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA) may mimic pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). The two diseases are clinically indistinguishable and may result in CPA misdiagnosed as PTB or vice versa. Although PTB is largely recognised as a differential diagnosis of CPA and often ruled out prior to CPA diagnosis, the reverse is uncommon. The aim of this study was to determine the proportion of CPA cases among patients being assessed for PTB. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among consecutive patients referred for GeneXpert Mycobacterium tuberculosis test for the diagnosis of PTB at the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital, Accra, Ghana. Patients' demographics, clinical and socioeconomic details were obtained using a structured questionnaire. Blood was collected for Aspergillus and HIV serology, and sputum samples obtained for Aspergillus culture. Chest radiograph was obtained, and computed tomography scan was also done for patients with positive Aspergillus serology or cavitation. CPA was defined using an algorithm developed by the Global Action for Fungal Infections (GAFFI) international expert panel. A total of 154 patients were included in the analysis, of whom 134 (87%) did not have a prior PTB diagnosis. There were 41 (26.6%) GeneXpert positive cases. CPA prevalence was 9.7% overall, but 50% in patients with a prior history of PTB and 3.7% in those without previous PTB. Although CPA is rarely considered as a differential diagnosis of PTB in Ghana, our findings show that CPA may affect half of patients being assessed for PTB relapse. Efforts to diagnose CPA should be prioritised in this patient group.

Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA) may be misdiagnosed as pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), or vice versa due to clinical similarities. Screening for CPA among patients undergoing investigation for relapsed PTB and new PTB revealed that half and about four in 100 patients, respectively, had CPA.

Foodborne Microbiological Hazards in Ghana: A Scoping Review.

Background: Foodborne diseases pose a significant public health threat, particularly in regions with poor sanitation and food handling practices. These diseases, mainly caused by microbiological hazards like bacteria, fungi, and parasites, affect millions globally. Despite the global burden, the true extent of these hazards remains underestimated, especially in low- and middle-income countries like Ghana. This study aimed to map the available literature on foodborne microbiological hazards in Ghana, providing an overview of the evidence and identifying areas where further research is needed. Method: This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis Extension for Scoping Reviews. A detailed search was done in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, and articles were exported to Rayyan for screening. A three-phase screening process was used to identify relevant articles. Data from the included articles were extracted and analysed, with specific information related to food type, specific hazards, sample population, and hazard groups summarised using proportions and tables. Results: This review included 72 studies which were published between 2001 and 2023. Eighty-five percent of these studies (85%) reported on bacterial hazards, while 19%, 11%, and 6% reported on fungi, parasites, and mycotoxins, respectively. The most reported bacterial, fungal, and parasitic hazards were Escherichia coli, Aspergillus spp. and Trichuris trichiura, respectively. Aflatoxins were reported in maize, groundnut, and spices, with prevalence ranging from 61% to 100% and at levels exceeding standards set by Ghana Standards Authority and European Food Safety Authority. Conclusion: This review highlighted the spectrum of microbiological hazards in foods in Ghana. The hazards identified pose significant public health risks, particularly among vulnerable populations. It is crucial that stricter enforcement of food safety laws and improved food handling practices are implemented in the country, particularly in the informal food sector, to protect consumers.

A Systematic Review on Antimicrobial Resistance in Ghana from a One Health Perspective.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a global health threat, with lower-middle-income countries bearing a disproportionate burden. Surveillance of AMR under a One Health framework is needed to elucidate the associations among clinical, animal, and environmental AMR. This review aimed to describe the state of AMR in Ghana, focusing on One Health. METHOD: This review utilized the PRISMA guidelines and major databases to systematically search and analyze AMR in Ghana published from 1 January 2014 to 1 May 2023. RESULTS: Out of the 48 articles that met the inclusion criteria, 28 studies were conducted on humans, 14 studies involved animals, and 6 studies focused on the environment. A total of 48 different pathogens were identified across the human, animal, and environmental sectors, with the most common being Escherichia coli (67%, n = 32), Klebsiella spp. (52%, n = 25), Pseudomonas spp. (40%, n = 19), and Salmonella spp. (38%, n = 18). Generally, a high prevalence of antibiotic resistance was observed among various bacterial species across the sectors. These bacteria exhibited resistance to commonly used antibiotics, with resistance to ampicillin and tetracycline exceeding 80%, and multidrug resistance (MDR) ranging from 17.6% in Shigella spp. to 100% in Acinetobacter spp. CONCLUSION: This review reaffirms the significant challenge of AMR in Ghana, with a high prevalence observed in the human, animal, and environmental sectors. Key pathogens (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli) found across the sectors emphasize the urgent need for a One Health approach to tackle AMR in Ghana.

Sepsis-Related Lung Injury and the Complication of Extrapulmonary Pneumococcal Pneumonia.

Globally, sepsis and pneumonia account for significant mortality and morbidity. A complex interplay of immune-molecular pathways underlies both sepsis and pneumonia, resulting in similar and overlapping disease characteristics. Sepsis could result from unmanaged pneumonia. Similarly, sepsis patients have pneumonia as a common complication in the intensive care unit. A significant percentage of pneumonia is misdiagnosed as septic shock. Therefore, our knowledge of the clinical relationship between pneumonia and sepsis is imperative to the proper management of these syndromes. Regarding pathogenesis and etiology, pneumococcus is one of the leading pathogens implicated in both pneumonia and sepsis syndromes. Growing evidence suggests that pneumococcal pneumonia can potentially disseminate and consequently induce systemic inflammation and severe sepsis. Streptococcus pneumoniae could potentially exploit the function of dendritic cells (DCs) to facilitate bacterial dissemination. This highlights the importance of pathogen-immune cell crosstalk in the pathophysiology of sepsis and pneumonia. The role of DCs in pneumococcal infections and sepsis is not well understood. Therefore, studying the immunologic crosstalk between pneumococcus and host immune mediators is crucial to elucidating the pathophysiology of pneumonia-induced lung injury and sepsis. This knowledge would help mitigate clinical diagnosis and management challenges.

Etiologic Profile of the Pneumococcus in Ghana: A Systematic Review.

Objective: To describe the profile of Streptococcus pneumoniae, identify research gaps, and provide in-depth insights into various aspects related to the pathogen. Methods: Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect were searched for all studies on the pneumococcus in Ghana that reported on specimen collected, population and sample size, carriage prevalence, incidence of pneumococcal diseases, age of the study population, types of test performed, serotypes identified, antimicrobial susceptibilities, or molecular analysis on the pneumococci for data extraction. Results: Overall, a total of 7954 results were obtained from the three-database search, and of this, 24 articles were selected after screening. A total of 924 isolates were accounted for by serotyping/serogrouping. The prevalence of pneumococcal carriage in Ghana ranges from 11.0% to 51.4% in the population depending on the age (≤ 24-80 years), sickle cell disease (SCD), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status, or health of the study population, and penicillin (Pen)-nonsusceptible isolates ranged from 17% to 63%. The prevalence of pneumococci found as the etiologic agent of diseases among Ghanaians ranges from 3.4% for otitis media to 77.7% for meningitis. Overall, the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) (PCV-13) carriage serotypes accounted for 28.4% of the reported pneumococcal isolates. PCV-13 invasive serotypes accounted for 22.4% of the reported isolates. The non-PCV-13 carriage serotypes accounted for most (43.9%) of the reported isolates. In the pre-PCV-13 era, the nontypeable (NT) (5.5%) and other nonvaccine types (NVTs) (6.4%) were reported as being predominant. The non-PCV-13 serotypes accounted for 4.4% of the reported isolates in invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) cases. Multidrug resistance (MDR) ranged from 7.8% to 100%. Conclusion: Predicting the invasiveness of pneumococci using molecular typing is the way to go in the future as this will provide answers to the extent to which capsular switching is contributing to the pneumococcal disease burden in Ghana almost a decade after introducing PCV-13. Continuous monitoring of antibiotic resistance patterns at both phenotypic and genotypic levels, along with serotyping and molecular typing, should be a standard practice in the surveillance of pneumococcal disease burden in Ghana.

Reservoirs of Nosocomial Pathogens in Intensive Care Units: A Systematic Review.

Background: Nosocomial pathogens are known to exacerbate morbidity and mortality in contemporary critical healthcare. Hospital fomites, which include inanimate surfaces, have been identified as "breeding grounds" for pathogens that cause nosocomial infections. This systematic review aimed to deliver incisive insights on nosocomial pathogens in intensive care units (ICUs) and the role of fomites as potential reservoirs for their transmission. Method: An extensive exploration of electronic databases, including PubMed and Scopus, from 1990 to 2023, was carried out between 25th and 29th May 2023, per standard PRISMA guidelines. Information were extracted from articles that reported on fomites in the ICU. Studies that did not quantitatively report the fomite contamination, and those that exclusively took samples from patients in the ICU were excluded from the analysis. Results: About 40% of the total samples collected on fomites from all the studies yielded microbial growth, with species of Staphylococcus being the most predominant. Other prevalent microbes were Acinetobacter baumannii, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Candida spp., Enterococcus sp., and Enterobacter sp. The neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) had the highest proportion of contaminated fomites. Among known fomites, the sphygmomanometer exhibited a 100% detection rate of nosocomial pathogens. This included E. aerogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS), E. coli, and K. pneumoniae. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing E. coli, and MDR Pseudomonas aeruginosa were commonly isolated on fomites in the ICUs. Conclusion: Many fomites that are readily used in patient care in the ICU harbour nosocomial pathogens. The most common fomite appeared to be mobile phones, sphygmomanometers, and stethoscopes, with Staphylococcus being the most common contaminant. Consequently, the need for rigorous disinfection and sterilization protocols on fomites in the ICU cannot be overemphasized. Additionally, heightened awareness on the subject among health professionals is crucial to mitigating the risk and burden of nosocomial infections caused by drug-resistant bacteria.

Genome Sequences of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Recovered from Mid-Stream Urine Samples in Accra, Ghana.

Escherichia coli, a member of the commensal intestinal microbiota, is a significant aetiology of urinary tract infections (UTIs) and has a propensity for acquiring multidrug resistance characteristics, such as extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs). Despite the increase in the incidence of ESBL-producing E. coli infections in sub-Saharan Africa, routine ESBL detection in Ghana is often absent, and molecular data on ESBL genotypes is scarce. Eleven ESBL-producing E. coli recovered from mid-stream urine samples were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing and whole-genome sequence analyses. All isolates exhibited multidrug resistance, demonstrating phenotypic resistance to third-generation cephalosporins, such as cefotaxime, ceftazidime, and cefpodoxime. Three isolates demonstrated resistance to norfloxacin (a fluoroquinolone), and one isolate demonstrated intermediate resistance to ertapenem (a carbapenem). Analysis of the draft genomes identified multiple antimicrobial resistance genes including ESBL genotypes blaTEM-1B/TEM-190 (6/11 and 1/11, respectively), blaCTX-M-15/CTX-M-3 (7/11 and 1/11) and blaOXA-1/OXA-181 (3/11 and 1/11). The strains belong to 10 different serotypes and 10 different multilocus sequence types. This study provides information on phenotypic resistance in 11 ESBL E. coli from Ghana and AMR genotypes within their genomes.

High Prevalence of ESBL Genes in Commensal Escherichia coli of the Urinary Tract: Implications for Antibiotic Stewardship among Residents of Ghanaian Elderly Nursing Care Homes.

The emergence and spread of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli (E. coli) pose significant challenges to the treatment and control of urinary tract infections, particularly among vulnerable populations, such as the elderly living in nursing care homes. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of ESBL genes in commensal E. coli isolated from urine samples of 118 elderly individuals residing in Ghanaian nursing care homes. A total of 195 ESBL genes were detected among 41 E. coli isolated from the study participants. All the isolates harboured at least one ESBL gene, and the majority of them (70.1%) carried at least four ESBL genes. Among the ESBL genes detected, CTXM825 was the predominant (14.1%). In antimicrobial susceptibility testing, 65.9% of the isolates showed resistance to cefepime, a fourth-generation cephalosporin, while 56.1% showed resistance to cefotaxime, a third-generation cephalosporin. Additionally, 46.3% of the isolates were multidrug-resistant, indicating resistance to antibiotics from multiple classes. In summary, we observed relatively high rates of resistance to antibiotics as well as alarming rates of ESBL genes in the isolated pathogens. These findings emphasise the urgent need for antimicrobial stewardship and infection control programmes to mitigate the spread of multidrug-resistant pathogens in nursing care homes.

The Potential of Bacteriophage-Antibiotic Combination Therapy in Treating Infections with Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria.

The growing threat of antibiotic resistance is a significant global health challenge that has intensified in recent years. The burden of antibiotic resistance on public health is augmented due to its multifaceted nature, as well as the slow-paced and limited development of new antibiotics. The threat posed by resistance is now existential in phage therapy, which had long been touted as a promising replacement for antibiotics. Consequently, it is imperative to explore the potential of combination therapies involving antibiotics and phages as a feasible alternative for treating infections with multidrug-resistant bacteria. Although either bacteriophage or antibiotics can potentially treat bacterial infections, they are each fraught with resistance. Combination therapies, however, yielded positive outcomes in most cases; nonetheless, a few combinations did not show any benefit. Combination therapies comprising the synergistic activity of phages and antibiotics and combinations of phages with other treatments such as probiotics hold promise in the treatment of drug-resistant bacterial infections.

In Vitro effects of petroleum ether, dichloromethane, methanolic and aqueous leaf extracts of Eucalyptus grandis on selected multidrug-resistant bacteria.

BACKGROUND: The emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance is of grave concern, requiring the search for newer and more effective antimicrobials to combat infections caused by resistant microbes. This study assessed the antimicrobial effects of Eucalyptus grandis crude extracts against selected multidrug resistant bacteria. METHODOLOGY: Four different crude leaf extracts of E. grandis were prepared using petroleum ether, dichloromethane, methanol, and water, with the aid of the Soxhlet extraction method. These were screened against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), multidrug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and multidrug resistant Escherichia coli, using the agar well diffusion method. Phytochemical screening was carried out to evaluate the bioactive phytochemical constituents responsible for the antimicrobial effect. RESULTS: Each of the extracts, except for the one prepared from water, had antimicrobial activity against the screened bacteria. The non-polar petroleum ether extract had the highest antimicrobial activity (19.33-24.33 mm), including bactericidal effects, compared to the medium polar dichloromethane and polar methanol extracts, which recorded zone diameter ranges of 14.33-16.67 mm and 16.33-17.67 mm, respectively. The Gram-negative bacteria (E. coli and P. aeruginosa) were the least susceptible in comparison with the Gram-positive bacterium (MRSA), probably owing to differences in their cell wall structures. Furthermore, phytochemical screening indicated the presence of alkaloids, tannins, saponins, terpenoids, and flavonoids. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that E. grandis could be potentially useful in the treatment of infections caused by multidrug resistant bacteria.

Blood C-peptide concentration as a proxy marker of cardiovascular disease: An observational cross-sectional study.

Background and Aims: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are among the leading causes of disability and early death in sub-Saharan Africa. Most of the current blood tests for CVD diagnosis involve performing about three test profiles; often at additional cost to patients. C-peptide, a cleavage product of proinsulin, is a promising marker that has the potential to serve as a proxy marker for diagnosing CVDs in resource-poor settings. Methodology: The study was an observational cross-sectional one and involved 127 consenting persons diagnosed with CVD and 127 individuals without CVD. The socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of participants were obtained. Blood levels of C-peptide, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), total creatinine kinase (CK), creatine kinase myocardial bound (CKMB), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), propeptide of brain natriuretic peptide (PBNP), Troponin T, lipids, and biomarkers of kidney and liver function were analyzed using ELISA and an automated analyzer. Insulin resistance was computed using the modified homeostatic model assessment (HOMA-IR). Results: The CVD Group had significantly higher levels of C-peptide, CK, CKMB, troponin T, PBNP, FPG, HOMA-IR, and several selected kidney, liver, and lipid parameters compared to the non-CVD Group (p < 0.05 for all). Troponin T recorded a positive correlation (r = 0.34, p < 0.001) with C-peptide among the CVD Group. The sensitivity and specificity of C-peptide in identifying CVD were 96.1% and 91.3% respectively (area under the curve = 0.938, p < 0.001). Conclusion: C-peptide levels were higher in the CVD Group and appeared to be a valuable (high sensitivity and specificity) biomarker in detecting CVD.

In vitro antimicrobial activity of crude propolis extracts and fractions.

The search for antimicrobials in propolis presents a new dimension for addressing the problem of antimicrobial drug resistance. The aim of this study was to determine the antimicrobial activity of extracts of crude propolis collected from different regions in Ghana and their active fractions. The antimicrobial activity of the extracts, as well as that of the chloroform, ethyl acetate, and petroleum ether fractions of the active samples were determined using the agar well diffusion method. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the most active fractions were determined. The various crude propolis extracts frequently produced zones of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus (17/20) than Pseudomonas aeruginosa (16/20), and Escherichia coli (1/20) test isolates. Chloroform and ethyl acetate solvents produced fractions possessing greater antimicrobial activity than the petroleum ether fraction. The mean MIC range of the most active fractions was greatest for S. aureus (76.0 ± 34.8-48.0 ± 33.0 mg/ml) than for P. aeruginosa (40.8 ± 33.3-30.4 ± 6.7 mg/ml) and E. coli, as was the mean MBC. Propolis has antimicrobial potential, and hence should be exploited as an alternative for the treatment of bacterial infections.

Multicenter Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance among Gram-Negative Bacteria Isolated from Bloodstream Infections in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Gram-negative bacteria-causing bloodstream infections (BSIs), such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS), is a major public health concern. Nonetheless, AMR surveillance remains scarce in sub-Saharan Africa, where BSI treatment is largely empirical. The aim of the study was to determine the distribution and AMR patterns of BSI-causing NTS, K. pneumoniae, and other Gram-negative bacteria in Ghana. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted between April and December 2021 at eleven sentinel health facilities across Ghana as part of a pilot study on the feasibility and implementation of the human sector AMR surveillance harmonized protocol in sub-Saharan Africa. Gram-negative bacteria recovered from blood specimens of febrile patients were identified using MALDI-TOF and evaluated for antimicrobial resistance using the BD Phoenix M50 analyzer and Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion. The Department of Medical Microbiology at the University of Ghana served as the reference laboratory. RESULTS: Out of 334 Gram-negative blood isolates, there were 18 (5.4%) NTS, 85 (25.5%) K. pneumoniae, 88 (26.4%) Escherichia coli, 40 (12.0%) Acinetobacter baumannii, 25 (7.5%) Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and 77 (23.1%) other Gram-negative bacteria. As a composite, the isolates displayed high resistance to the antibiotics tested-amoxicillin (89.3%), tetracycline (76.1%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (71.5%), and chloramphenicol (59.7%). Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins [ceftriaxone (73.7%), cefotaxime (77.8%), and ceftazidime (56.3%)] and fluoroquinolones [ciprofloxacin (55.3%)] was also high; 88% of the isolates were multidrug resistant, and the rate of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) production was 44.6%. Antibiotic resistance in K. pneumoniae followed the pattern of all Gram-negative isolates. Antibiotic resistance was lower in NTS blood isolates, ranging between 16.7-38.9% resistance to the tested antibiotics. Resistance rates of 38.9%, 22.2%, and 27.8% were found for cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, and ceftazidime, respectively, and 27.8% and 23.8% for ciprofloxacin and azithromycin, respectively, which are used in the treatment of invasive NTS. The prevalence of multidrug resistance in NTS isolates was 38.9%. CONCLUSIONS: Multicenter AMR surveillance of Gram-negative blood isolates from febrile patients was well-received in Ghana, and the implementation of a harmonized protocol was feasible. High resistance and multidrug resistance to first- or second-choice antibiotics, including penicillins, third-generation cephalosporins, and fluoroquinolones, were found, implying that these antibiotics might have limited effectiveness in BSI treatment in the country. Continuation of AMR surveillance in Gram-negative blood isolates is essential for a better understanding of the extent of AMR in these pathogens and to guide clinical practice and policymaking.

Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria Contaminating Raw Meat Sold in Accra, Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Efforts to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR) should be based on the One Health approach, involving human health, animal health, and the environment. In Ghana, previous studies on AMR have given little attention to animal source food, a major route of transmission of antibiotic-resistant zoonotic pathogens. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria in meat sold in Accra. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study in which 270 meat samples (90 each of beef, goat meat, and chicken) were collected, and investigated for contamination with multidrug-resistant bacteria. The bacteria were subjected to susceptibility testing against amikacin (30 µg), ampicillin (10 µg), amoxicillin-clavulanate (20/10 µg), cefuroxime (30 µg), ceftriaxone (30 µg), ceftazidime (30 µg), cefepime (30 µg), ciprofloxacin (5 µg), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (1.25/23.75 µg), ertapenem (10 µg), meropenem (10 µg), imipenem (10 µg), tigecycline (15 µg), and gentamicin (10 µg). RESULTS: Thirty-two different types of bacteria, totalling 558, were isolated, the predominant being Escherichia coli (44.6%), Aeromonas hydrophila (19.9%), Vibrio cholerae (3.4%), Aeromonas veronii (3.2%), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (3.1%). The prevalence of MDR among the contaminating bacteria was 14.9%. The MDR distribution among the predominant bacteria was Escherichia coli (18.7%), Aeromonas hydrophila (11.1%), Vibrio cholerae and Aeromonas veronii (0.0% each), and K. pneumoniae (5.6%). Moreover, 2.0% of the contaminating bacteria were extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers, all of which occurred in the chicken samples, and their distribution was: Escherichia coli (1.3%), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pantoea spp., Enterobacter cloacae, and Serratia plymuthica (0.2% each). CONCLUSIONS: The meat samples were heavily contaminated with Escherichia coli and Aeromonas hydrophila, and less frequently, with Vibrio cholerae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and other organisms. The prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria was moderate (14.9%), while that of ESBL producers was low (2%).

Dynamics in Morbidity Markers and Cytological Observations Made in Urine of Schistosoma haematobium-Infected Children: Pre- and Post-Praziquantel Treatment in an Endemic Setting.

BACKGROUND: Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by helminths of the genus Schistosoma. Morbidity markers and cytological observations such as squamous metaplastic cells, inflammatory cells, and hyperkeratotic cells in the urine of S. haematobium-infected children may suggest disease severity. They may also help predict severe forms of clinical presentation, such as bladder cancer in later years, among infected ones who miss out on early detection and treatment. Insights into possible changes in the morbidity markers and cytological observations in the urine of these S. haematobium-infected children before and after treatment would be of high clinical importance. AIM: The aim of this study was to identify changes/dynamics in morbidity markers and cytological abnormalities in the urine deposits of S. haematobium-infected children, pre- and post-praziquantel treatment. METHODOLOGY: This was a longitudinal study involving baseline and follow-up sampling among basic school children living in schistosomiasis-endemic communities. Urine samples were collected from 520 children at baseline and examined for S. haematobium ova by microscopy, while urine chemistry analyses were used for the examination of morbidity markers. The cytological analyses involved cytopathological examination of the urine deposits. Children whose urine showed positivity for S. haematobium eggs were treated with a single oral dose of praziquantel (40 mg/kg), after which urine chemistry and cytological analyses were repeated weekly for comparison with baseline, until the eighth week. RESULTS: Morbidity markers such as hematuria, proteinuria, and leukocyturia were detected both at baseline and post-treatment among the infected children (30/520). Hematuria was the predominant parameter (90%, 27/30) detected at baseline, followed by proteinuria (53.3%, 16/30). Leukocyturia was the rarest parameter detected at baseline (13.3%, 4/30). However, almost all these parameters declined gradually post-treatment. Regarding cytological analyses, inflammatory cells were observed most (70.0%, 21/30) at baseline. For hyperkeratotic cells and squamous metaplastic cells, 46.7% and 26.7% were respectively observed at baseline, all of which gradually declined during the weekly follow-ups. Notably, squamous metaplastic cells persisted in all the participants from Week 1 through Week 3 post-treatment, but declined gradually thereafter. CONCLUSIONS: Morbidity markers and cytological observations in the children gradually decreased after treatment. Therefore, we continue to recommend routine cytological screening for urogenital schistosomiasis patients at hospitals in S. haematobium-endemic locations using both baseline and follow-up samples to detect these abnormalities early and monitor changes that may be occurring after treatment. Such changes may be useful in assessing treatment progress in infected persons.

Contrasting Hygiene-Related Gastrointestinal Infections and Stress-Related Diseases at a Primary Health Care Facility within a Sub-Saharan African City: Before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

BACKGROUND: With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, protocols such as social distancing and upscaling of hygiene practices were implemented to limit the spread of the disease. Meanwhile, along with COVID-19 came stress due to restrictions on movement, trade and transport, and closure of schools, among others. AIM: This study compared the prevalence of hygiene-related gastrointestinal infections and stress-related diseases before (March 2019-February 2020) and during (March 2020-February 2021) the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODOLOGY: This was a retrospective single-center review of deidentified patient data from the Korle Bu Polyclinic, Accra, Ghana. RESULTS: Comparing the pre-COVID-19 era to the COVID-19 era, there was a statistically nonsignificant change in the number of cases and prevalence of gastroenteritis and enteric fever (p = 0.084 and 0.081, respectively), although for gastroenteritis, the prevalence was higher for the pre-COVID-19 era compared to during COVID-19 by 1.8 per 1000 cases, while that of enteric fever was higher during the COVID-19 era compared to the pre-COVID-19 era by 1.0 per 1000 cases. Of the stress-related diseases, statistically significant increases in the prevalence of anxiety disorders (p = 0.028), insomnia (p = 0.001), and headache (p = 0.010), were noted, with 2.3, 5.5, and 2.4 per 1000 cases, respectively. There were more female cases than male cases recorded for depression (p = 0.001), headache (p = 0.010), and hypertension (p = 0.001) during the pandemic, and these were statistically significant. CONCLUSION: During the pandemic, a significant increase in the prevalence of stress-related diseases was observed. However, a statistically nonsignificant change was recorded for gastrointestinal infections, with females reporting more of these disorders. Consequently, it is important to strengthen the capacity for managing stress-related conditions alongside diseases that cause pandemics when they arise.

Phenotypic and genotypic detection of carbapenemase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in Accra, Ghana.

AIM: To describe the occurrence of carbapenem resistance among multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated from clinical specimens in Accra using phenotypic and genotypic methods. METHODOLOGY: The study was cross-sectional, involving 144 clinical MDR E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates recovered from the Central Laboratory of the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital (KBTH). The isolates were re-cultured bacteriologically, identified using standard biochemical tests, and subjected to antibiotic susceptibility testing using the Kirby-Bauer method. Carbapenem resistance was determined based on imipenem, meropenem, and ertapenem zones of inhibition, as well as minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs). Carbapenemase production was determined phenotypically by modified Hodge test (MHT) and modified carbapenem inactivation method (mCIM), and genotypically with multiplex PCR targeting the blaKPC, blaIMP, blaNDM, blaVIM, and blaOXA-48 genes. RESULTS: Of the 144 MDR isolates, 69.4% were E. coli, and 30.6% were K. pneumoniae. The distribution of antimicrobial resistance rates among them was ampicillin (97.2%), cefuroxime (93.1%), sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (86.8%), tetracycline (85.4%), cefotaxime and cefpodoxime (77.1% each), amoxicillin-clavulanate (75%), ceftriaxone (73.6%), ciprofloxacin (70.8%), levofloxacin (66.0%), cefepime (65.3%), ceftazidime (64.6%), gentamicin (48.6), piperacillin-tazobactam (40.3%), cefoxitin (14.6%), amikacin (13.9%), ertapenem and meropenem (5.6% each), and imipenem (2.8%). In total, 5.6% (8/144) of them were carbapenem-resistant (carbapenem MIC range = 0.094-32.0 µg/ml), with 75% (6/8) of these testing positive by the phenotypic tests and 62.5% (5/8) by the genotypic test (of which 80% [4/5] carried blaOXA-48 and 20% (1/5) blaNDM). The blaVIM, blaIMP, and blaKPC genes were not detected. CONCLUSION: Although the rates of antibiotic resistance among the isolates were high, the prevalence of carbapenemase producers was low. The finding of blaOXA-48 and blaNDM warrants upscaling of antimicrobial resistance surveillance programmes and fortification of infection prevention and control programmes in the country.

Cryptococcal and Histoplasma Antigen Screening Among People With Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Ghana and Comparative Analysis of OIDx Histoplasma Lateral Flow Assay and IMMY Histoplasma Enzyme Immunoassay.

Background: Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) and disseminated histoplasmosis (DH) are common in people with human immunodeficiency virus (PWH) and diagnosed by detecting cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) and Histoplasma antigen (HistoAg), respectively. In Ghana, CM and DH are rarely suspected by clinicians due to limited epidemiological data. Methods: This study was conducted among PWH in Ghana who are unwell. Sociodemographic and clinical data were collected by questionnaire. Serum and/or urine were screened for CrAg and HistoAg, using IMMY CrAg lateral flow assay (LFA) and IMMY Histoplasma enzyme immunoassay (EIA) kits, respectively, regardless of symptoms. Samples run with IMMY Histoplasma EIA were simultaneously run with Optimum Imaging Diagnostics (OIDx) Histoplasma LFA. Laboratory investigations were conducted by the research team, and diagnosis incorporating clinical assessment, screening, and confirmatory testing results and treatment decisions were made by the clinical team. Treatment and outcome information on CM and DH patients were evaluated. Results: Overall, 150 participants were recruited. There were 73% (n = 109) females, and the age range was 18-62 years. The prevalence rates of CrAg and HistoAg were 2.7% (4 of 150) and 4.7% (5 of 107), respectively. The OIDx Histoplasma LFA showed a high concordance (98.4%) with the IMMY Histoplasma EIA. All antigen-positive cases by standard tests were diagnosed with CM and DH. Antifungal treatment was given in 5 patients and follow-up revealed 2 deaths and 3 recoveries. Conclusions: Histoplasmosis among PWH may be more common than previously anticipated and may be more frequent than cryptococcosis in Ghana. The performance of the OIDx Histoplasma LFA should be further explored.

Preliminary Investigation into Plasmodium-like Piroplasms (Babesia/Theileria) among Cattle, Dogs and Humans in A Malaria-Endemic, Resource-Limited Sub-Saharan African City.

Babesia and Theileria are protozoan parasites belonging to the order piroplasmida, transmitted by hard ticks, and can cause diseases known as piroplasmosis. Human infections are usually asymptomatic, except in immuno-compromised persons who present malaria-like symptoms. Moreover, microscopically, the morphologies of Babesia and Theileria can resemble that of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium. In malaria-endemic areas with limited resources, these similarities can increase the possibility of misdiagnosing a patient as having malaria instead of piroplasmosis, which may further lead to inappropriate choice of disease management. This preliminary investigation aimed at detecting Babesia/Theileria in cattle, dogs and humans in some parts of Accra. Whole blood samples were taken from febrile cattle (n = 30) and dogs (n = 33), as well as humans diagnosed with malaria (n = 150). Blood samples of all study subjects were microscopically screened for possible presence of haemoparasites. Samples whose smears had features suggestive of possible piroplasmic infection were all given the label "suspected Babesia/Theileria-infected" samples. Nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed on extracted deoxyribonucelic acid (DNA) from all the "suspected" samples of cattle, dogs and humans, with primer sets that can detect 18S rRNA genes of Babesia/Theileria spp. In addition to this, amplification was performed on the "suspected" dog samples using the BcW-A/BcW-B primer set which detects the 18S rRNA genes of B. canis, while the BoF/BoR primer set which targets the rap-1 region of B. bovis and another primer set which detects the 18S rRNA genes of most bovine Babesia spp. (including B. divergens) were used on the suspected cattle samples. For the human samples, however, additional amplification was done on the extracted DNA using primers for the three other Babesia targeted (B. divergens, B. bovis and B. canis). Microscopy showed possible Babesia/Theileria infection suspected in all three groups of subjects in the following proportions: cattle (10/30; 33%), dogs (3/33; 9%) and humans (6/150; 4%). DNA from one-third of the "suspected" dog samples yielded amplification with Babesia canis primers. Moreover, a broad-detecting set of primers (that can amplify some Babesia and Theileria species) amplified DNA from nine (9/30; 30%) of the "suspected" cattle samples, but none from those of the humans. Although for this study conducted in the city, the Babesia/Theileria primers used did not amplify DNA from the six "suspected" human samples; the possibility of Babesia/Theileria infection in humans in other parts of the country cannot be overruled. There is therefore a need for further studies on possible emergence of human babesiosis/theileriosis in other parts of Ghana and sequencing for specific identification of any circulating strain.

Nasopharyngeal Carriage of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) among Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) Children in the Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Era.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate Staphylococcus aureus nasopharyngeal carriage epidemiology in relation to other nasopharyngeal bacterial colonizers among sickle cell disease (SCD) children about five years into pneumococcal conjugate vaccine 13 (PCV-13) introduction in Ghana. The study involved bacteriological culture of nasopharyngeal swabs obtained from 202 SCD children recruited from the Princess Marie Louise Children's Hospital. S. aureus isolates were identified using standard methods and subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. Cefoxitin-resistant S. aureus isolates were screened for carriage of the mecA, pvl, and tsst-1 genes using multiplex polymerase chain reaction. The carriage prevalence of S. aureus was 57.9% (n = 117), and that of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was 3.5% (n = 7). Carriage of the mecA, pvl, and tsst-1 genes were respectively demonstrated in 20.0% (n = 7), 85.7% (n = 30), and 11.4% (n = 4) of the cefoxitin-resistant S. aureus isolates. PCV-13 vaccination (OR = 0.356, p = 0.004) and colonization with coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) (OR = 0.044, p < 0.0001) each protected against S. aureus carriage. However, none of these and other features of the participants emerged as a determinant of MRSA carriage. The following antimicrobial resistance rates were observed in MRSA compared to methicillin-sensitive S. aureus: clindamycin (28.6% vs. 4.3%), erythromycin (42.9% vs. 19.1%), tetracycline (100% vs. 42.6%), teicoplanin (14.3% vs. 2.6%), penicillin (100% vs. 99.1%), amoxiclav (28.6% vs. 3.5%), linezolid (14.3% vs. 0.0%), ciprofloxacin (42.9% vs. 13.9%), and gentamicin (42.9% vs. 13.0%). The proportion of S. aureus isolates that were multidrug resistant was 37.7% (n = 46). We conclude that S. aureus was the predominant colonizer of the nasopharynx of the SCD children, warranting the continuous monitoring of this risk group for invasive S. aureus infections.