Experimental Effects of Substance Use Legality (Sober, Alcohol, Marijuana, Cocaine) and Sexual Crime (Indecent Exposure, Rape) on Attributions of Perpetrator Responsibility, Blame, and Punishment.

Background: The perceived culpability of a sexual crime perpetrator may be attributed as a function of both the legality of the substance used when committing the crime and the severity of the sex crime. Objectives: The experiment applied attribution theory to examine the simultaneous impact of substance use legality and sexual crime severity on participants' perceptions of responsibility, blame, and punishment toward sexual crime perpetrators. Methods: Participants (N = 461) in this 4 (substance legality) × 2 (sexual crime severity) experimental design were randomly assigned to one of eight conditions to read a police report depicting a sexual offense. The independent variable of substance legality was manipulated as the perpetrator's usage of no substance (sober), alcohol (legal), marijuana (partially legal), or cocaine (illegal) at the time of the crime. The second independent variable of sexual crime severity was manipulated as the offense of indecent exposure (mild offense) or rape (severe offense) committed by the perpetrator. After reading the manipulated vignette, participants rated outcome measures involving the perpetrator's responsibility, blame (guilt attributions, external attributions, and mental element attributions), and punishment (punishment attitudes and punishment severity). Results: Factorial MANCOVA and ANCOVAs were performed. Participants tended to attribute greater responsibility and blame, but not punishment, toward the sober perpetrator compared to the perpetrator intoxicated with alcohol, marijuana, or cocaine. Additionally, participants attributed significantly greater responsibility, blame, and punishment toward the perpetrator of rape compared to indecent exposure. Conclusions: The experiment supported that both substance legality and sexual crime severity uniquely served as contextual factors that played roles in people's judgments about crimes. Findings offer drug policy information regarding how substance intoxication is perceived as a mitigating excuse in criminal justice systems for committing sexual offenses.

Drinking to Cope With the COVID-19 Pandemic Mediates Pathways From COVID-19 Anxiety to Alcohol Use and Alcohol Myopia Consequences.

OBJECTIVE: People may consume alcohol to cope with the stressors and anxieties of the COVID-19 pandemic. The present study applied the self-medication hypothesis, tension reduction hypothesis, and alcohol myopia theory to understand COVID-19 alcohol coping as a mediator of the pathways from COVID-19 anxiety to alcohol use and alcohol consequences. METHODS: Participants (N = 477) were undergraduate college students. The mean age was 22.14 (SD = 5.66) years. Gender distribution included 73% females, 26% males, and 1% transgender. Racial categories included 70% White, 11% Latino, 5% Black, 5% Asian, and 9% multiracial. They completed the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale, the COVID-19 Alcohol Coping Scale developed and validated in the present study, measures of drinking frequency and drinking quantity, and the Alcohol Myopia Scale to assess alcohol consequences. RESULTS: First, confirmatory factor analysis supported the measurement structure of the COVID-19 Alcohol Coping Scale. Second, a general structural equation model containing only latent factors provided evidence for the following pathways: COVID-19 anxiety to COVID-19 alcohol coping to overall alcohol use to alcohol myopia consequences. Third, a specific structural equation model separated the overall alcohol use factor into two measures of drinking frequency and drinking quantity. Results found that COVID-19 alcohol coping uniquely explained drinking frequency (but not drinking quantity), indicating that the pursuit of alcohol to cope with the pandemic was related to more frequent days of alcohol use but not more concentrated use on drinking days. Tests of indirect effects corroborated the mediational pathways in the explanatory models. CONCLUSIONS: The research offers insights into understanding that the risk connections from COVID-19 anxiety to alcohol behavioral outcomes are mediated by alcohol use to cope with the pandemic.

Postpartum Insomnia and Poor Sleep Quality Are Longitudinally Predictive of Postpartum Mood Symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: Insomnia and poor sleep quality are frequently reported by perinatal women. Both are noted to increase the risk of postpartum depression, with less known about their association with postpartum anxiety. This study sought to assess whether perinatal sleep disturbances predicted depression and anxiety symptoms across each month of the first 6 months postpartum in women with a history of depression. METHODS: Pregnant women without active depression at enrollment ( N = 159), 18 to 45 years of age, were recruited. In late pregnancy and for up to 6 months postpartum, women completed monthly online questionnaires including the Insomnia Symptom Questionnaire, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7. Repeated-measures multilevel models were used to predict depression and anxiety across the postpartum. RESULTS: The prevalence of insomnia was 20.4%, and the prevalence of poor sleep quality was 67.8% across the first 6 months postpartum. Postpartum insomnia and poor sleep quality at the between-subject and within-subject levels tended to uniquely predict greater depressive and anxiety symptoms, even after controlling for demographic characteristics, prenatal insomnia, and prenatal poor sleep quality. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the women in our sample had sleep disturbances across the perinatal period. Consistent with the extant literature, postpartum insomnia and poor sleep quality, but not prenatal measures of sleep, longitudinally predicted greater postpartum depression and anxiety symptoms. The chronic sleep deprivation of insomnia and the subjective experience of poor sleep quality are uniquely relevant risks of postpartum mood disorders. Evaluation and mitigation of perinatal sleep disturbance are ideal opportunities to reduce postpartum mood disorders and subsequent health outcomes.

Pathways from Positive, Negative, and Specific Alcohol Expectancies to Weekday and Weekend Drinking to Alcohol Problems.

The current study tested and identified risk and protective pathways from alcohol expectancies to weekday and weekend consumption to problematic consequences. Adult alcohol users (N = 395) completed measures of alcohol expectancies, daily consumption habits during a typical week, and alcohol-related problems. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the five-factor structure of positive expectancy, negative expectancy, weekday drinking, weekend drinking, and alcohol problems. The structural equation model specifying general positive and negative expectancy to weekday and weekend use to alcohol problems exhibited satisfactory fit indices. Specifically, positive expectancy contributed to greater weekend drinking, but negative expectancy prompted greater weekday drinking. Furthermore, lower positive expectancy, higher negative expectancy, higher weekday drinking, and higher weekend drinking each uniquely explained greater alcohol problems. The structural equation model involving the seven specific expectancies to weekday and weekend use to alcohol problems produced high fit indices. Specifically, higher risk and aggression, higher self-perception, and lower cognitive and behavioral impairment expectancies uniquely predicted weekday drinking. In contrast, higher sociability, higher liquid courage, higher risk and aggression, and lower cognitive impairment expectancies explained weekend drinking. The predictive model premised on specific alcohol expectancies as distinct constructs exhibited higher fit indices and more nuanced insights regarding risk and protective pathways for prevention than the model involving general positive versus negative expectancy constructs. Findings underscore that different types of self-fulfilling alcohol expectancy beliefs distinctively explain weekday versus weekend intake and problems.

Personality Traits Moderate Connections from Drinking Attitudes to Alcohol Use and Myopic Relief, Self-inflation, and Excess.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol myopia theory postulates that the level of alcohol use in conjunction with personal cues, such as alcohol attitudes and personality traits help to understand the types of consequences manifested. OBJECTIVES: This study examined and identified the personality traits that served as predictors and moderators of the risk connections from drinking attitudes to alcohol use to myopia outcomes. METHODS: College students (N = 433) completed self-report measures. In a path analysis using structural equation modeling, personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, and neuroticism), drinking attitudes, and personality × drinking attitudes interactions simultaneously served as predictors on the outcomes of alcohol use and myopic relief, self-inflation, and excess. RESULTS: Alcohol attitudes and use consistently emerged as unique predictors of all three myopia outcomes. Extraversion and neuroticism were identified as statistical moderators, but results varied depending on the myopia outcome interpreted. Specifically, extraversion moderated the pathways from attitudes to usage and from attitudes to myopic relief. Neuroticism, however, moderated the relations from attitudes to myopic self-inflation and from attitudes to myopic excess. Conclusions/Importance: Extraverted and neurotic dispositions could exacerbate or attenuate the risk connections from alcohol attitudes to outcomes. Findings offer implications for alcohol prevention efforts designed to simultaneously target drinking attitudes, personality traits, and alcohol myopia.

Testing the Amotivational Syndrome: Marijuana Use Longitudinally Predicts Lower Self-Efficacy Even After Controlling for Demographics, Personality, and Alcohol and Cigarette Use.

The marijuana amotivational syndrome posits that cannabis use fosters apathy through the depletion of motivation-based constructs such as self-efficacy. The current study pursued a two-round design to rule out concomitant risk factors responsible for the connection from marijuana intake to lower general self-efficacy. College students (N = 505) completed measures of marijuana use, demographics (age, gender, and race), personality (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, and neuroticism), other substance use (alcohol and tobacco), and general self-efficacy (initiative, effort, and persistence) in two assessments separated by a month. Hierarchical regression models found that marijuana use forecasted lower initiative and persistence, even after statistically ruling out 13 pertinent baseline covariates including demographics, personality traits, alcohol use, tobacco use, and self-efficacy subscales. A cross-lagged panel model involving initiative, effort, persistence, alcohol use, cigarette use, and marijuana use sought to unravel the temporal precedence of processes. Results showed that only marijuana (but not alcohol or tobacco) intake significantly and longitudinally prompted lower initiative and persistence. Furthermore, in the same model, the opposite temporal direction of events from lower general self-efficacy subscales to marijuana use was untenable. Findings provide partial support for the marijuana amotivational syndrome, underscore marijuana as a risk factor for decreased general self-efficacy, and offer implications and insights for marijuana prevention and future research.

Conceptualizing and Measuring Weekend versus Weekday Alcohol Use: Item Response Theory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

Culturally, people tend to abstain from alcohol intake during the weekdays and wait to consume in greater frequency and quantity during the weekends. The current research sought to empirically justify the days representing weekday versus weekend alcohol consumption. In study 1 (N = 419), item response theory was applied to a two-parameter (difficulty and discrimination) model that evaluated the days of drinking (frequency) during the typical 7-day week. Item characteristic curves were most similar for Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday (prototypical weekday) and for Friday and Saturday (prototypical weekend). Thursday and Sunday, however, exhibited item characteristics that bordered the properties of weekday and weekend consumption. In study 2 (N = 403), confirmatory factor analysis was applied to test six hypothesized measurement structures representing drinks per day (quantity) during the typical week. The measurement model producing the strongest fit indices was a correlated two-factor structure involving separate weekday and weekend factors that permitted Thursday and Sunday to double load on both dimensions. The proper conceptualization and accurate measurement of the days demarcating the normative boundaries of "dry" weekdays and "wet" weekends are imperative to inform research and prevention efforts targeting temporal alcohol intake patterns.

The efficacy of a standalone protective behavioral strategies intervention for students accessing mental health services.

Students with poor mental health are at increased risk for problematic alcohol use. These students also tend to underutilize alcohol-related protective behavioral strategies (PBS). Cross-sectional studies indicate that PBS use may be particularly useful for students with mental health challenges; however, it is unclear whether training these students to use PBS is an effective approach for reducing alcohol use and consequences. The current study evaluated the efficacy of a standalone PBS skills training and personalized feedback (PBS-STPF) intervention among students accessing mental health services. Participants (N = 251) were randomly assigned to either an individual facilitator-led PBS-STPF intervention or a health-related control condition. Participants completed online follow-up surveys 1 and 6 months post-intervention which included measures of alcohol use, negative consequences, and a composite measure of PBS use. Relative to control participants, students in the PBS-STPF condition reported significantly greater PBS use but no differences in alcohol use or consequences. Participants in both conditions reported decreases in drinking outcomes over time. Tests of mediation indicated that the intervention indirectly led to reduction in drinking outcomes at 6 months through increased PBS use. Although the intervention resulted in changes in PBS use that were maintained for up to 6 months post-intervention, the effects of the intervention on drinking and consequences were limited. A brief standalone PBS training may need augmentation in order to promote effective use of PBS for substantial decreases in alcohol consequences.

A primer for using meta-analysis to consolidate research.

The article provides an introduction to interpreting meta-analysis in the context of synthesizing results of studies that examine the role of culture on drug use behaviors. Topics reviewed include using effect size to indicate the strength of a relationship in a primary study, combining effects in weighted models to yield a summary effect, and understanding how study-level moderators help to explain the heterogeneity in effect dispersion across investigations. The advantages of meta-analytic procedures for consolidating preexisting knowledge are highlighted.

Differentiating Common Predictors and Outcomes of Marijuana Initiation: A Retrospective Longitudinal Analysis.

This quasi-experimental secondary analysis, funded by NIDA, employed data from a national sample of 1,968 US adolescents, collected from 1999 to 2003, self-classified as resolutely anti-marijuana on the first two yearly assessments (T1 and 2). At T3, respondents remained resolute non-users, or had moved to vulnerable non-use or use. Analysis of variance indicated that users at T3 were significantly heavier users of tobacco and alcohol, and reported significantly less intense parental monitoring, than those who did not initiate marijuana use. Furthermore, categorizing non-users as either resolute or vulnerable revealed behavioral patterns that otherwise would have been unidentified. Implications for prevention are discussed.

A meta-analysis of cognitive reappraisal and personal resilience.

Cognitive reappraisal, an adaptive emotion regulation strategy that involves subjectively reinterpreting stressful and adverse experiences in a more positive manner, can enhance personal resilience. Personal resilience is a constellation of attributes that facilitate successful coping and an expeditious return to adaptive functioning after exposure to stress or adversity. This meta-analysis evaluated the association between cognitive reappraisal and personal resilience. A systematic and exhaustive search identified 64 independent samples from 55 studies (N = 29,824) that examined the correlation between cognitive reappraisal and personal resilience. A random-effects model revealed a positive summary effect (r = 0.47, p < .001), indicating that higher cognitive reappraisal was associated with higher personal resilience. Six potential meta-moderators were tested: culture, age, name of the cognitive reappraisal measure, name of the personal resilience measure, study design, and publication period. After two extreme effect size outliers were omitted, tests of publication bias did not reveal any publication bias in this line of research. This quantitative synthesis offers compelling evidence showing that cognitive reappraisal skills operate as a protective strategy against stress and adversity and, therefore, enhance personal resilience. The protective benefits of cognitive reappraisal in relation to personal resilience are relatively robust, as the correlations were statistically significant for all subgroups in the meta-moderation analyses.

Predicting Sensationalism in Suicide Story Headlines.

Objective: Suicide is a leading cause of death in the United States, and media publicity plays a role in suicide rates. The United States offers guidelines for the reporting of suicide. This study evaluated guideline adherence in newspaper and newswire publications covering celebrity suicide deaths. The research also assessed whether the sensationalism of article headlines could be predicted by variables reflecting nonadherent reporting. Method: Publications from 2013 to 2018 reporting on nine celebrity suicides were evaluated via content analysis. Adherence was assessed in a two-step hierarchical linear regression to determine which variables predicted sensationalism in headlines. Results: Overall adherence to reporting guidelines was moderate. Newspaper disclosure of suicide method only, suicide method and location, and note contents significantly predicted headline sensationalism in the first regression model, R2 = 22%. The sensationalism in the body of the article and other variables additionally predicted headline sensationalism in the second regression model, R2 = 55%. Limitations: This study is limited to celebrity suicide reporting and may not reflect media reporting trends of noncelebrity suicide deaths. Conclusion: Findings reveal that sensationalism in the body of the article and other variables uniquely contributed to sensationalism in newspaper headlines. This suggests that the public could be at risk for reading harmful content not consistent with reporting recommendations about suicide because of the initial attraction to sensational headlines.

Injunctive peer misperceptions and the mediation of self-approval on risk for driving after drinking among college students.

Of the alcohol-related risks faced by college students, it is arguable that none presents a greater public health hazard than driving after drinking (DAD). The present study examined the extent to which students' injunctive misperceptions toward DAD predicted the likelihood to engage in DAD and how this relation was mediated by self-approval of DAD. Participants were 2,848 college students (59.1% female, 64.6% Caucasian) from two U.S. West Coast universities who completed confidential web-based surveys assessing DAD beliefs and behaviors. Results revealed that respondents tended to overestimate their peers' approval toward DAD. Moreover, the subgroups likely to engage in DAD--men, 21 + years of age, Greek affiliated students, Caucasians, students with a family history of alcohol abuse--were also more likely to misperceive (i.e., overestimate) their peers' level of approval toward DAD. Using binary logistic regression analyses, self-approval of DAD emerged as an important statistical mediator in the relation between misperception of typical student approval toward DAD and engagement in DAD. Results point to the considerable role injunctive peer misperceptions may play in the pathways leading to drinking-driving risk. These findings provide preliminary support for DAD-specific social normative interventions, either complementing or supplementing existing alcohol interventions. By targeting high-risk student subgroups and communicating accurate drinking-driving norms, these proposed interventions have the potential to reduce self-approval and incidence of DAD.

COVID-19 Stress (Traumatic Symptoms, Compulsive Checking, Xenophobia, and Danger & Contamination) and Alcohol Use Uniquely Explain State Alcohol Cravings.

Stressful events may lead to the consumption of alcohol as a self-medicating and coping strategy. The self-medication hypothesis and addiction loop model served as the theoretical frameworks to understand how various COVID-19 pandemic stressors serve as risks for alcohol usage and state alcohol cravings. The study hypothesized that higher COVID-19 stressors (past month) would predict higher alcohol use (past month), and both were hypothesized to uniquely explain stronger alcohol cravings (state). Adult alcohol users (N = 366) participated in this cross-sectional study. Respondents completed measures of the COVID Stress Scales (socioeconomic, xenophobia, traumatic symptoms, compulsive checking, and danger & contamination), drink frequency and drink quantity, and state alcohol cravings (Alcohol Urge Questionnaire and Desires for Alcohol Questionnaire). Results from a structural equation model involving latent factors determined that higher pandemic stress explained greater alcohol use, and both factors uniquely contributed to stronger state alcohol cravings. A structural equation model premised on specific measures revealed that higher xenophobia stress, higher traumatic symptoms stress, higher compulsive checking stress, and lower danger & contamination stress uniquely predicted drink quantity, but not drink frequency. Furthermore, greater drink quantity and drink frequency independently predicted stronger state alcohol cravings. The findings recognize that pandemic stressors operate as cue-induced triggers for alcohol use and cravings. The COVID-19 stressors identified in this study could be targeted in interventions based on the addiction loop model designed to mitigate the effects of stress cues on alcohol use and present cravings for alcohol.

The Alcohol Relief Questionnaire: Development and validation of a multidimensional scale to measure the psychological, interpersonal, sleep, and physical relief effects of drinking.

Several major alcohol theoretical frameworks postulate that people consume alcohol to attain relief from negative states. These relief experiences are consistent with the classification of alcohol as a central nervous system depressant and may reinforce drinking behaviors that sustain the addiction cycle. The present research developed and validated a multidimensional questionnaire to assess the relief effects and experiences attributed to alcohol consumption in adult drinkers. In Study 1 (N = 380), an initial set of questionnaire items representing an array of alcohol relief effects was administered, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed. A correlated four-factor structure consisting of psychological relief, interpersonal relief, sleep relief, and physical relief was exhibited. In Study 2 (N = 531), confirmatory factor analysis cross-validated the four-factor structure. In tests of convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related validities, the four alcohol relief subscales evidenced differential correlations with subscales of alcohol expectancies and alcohol affect and correlated with higher drink frequency, drink quantity, and alcohol problems. Furthermore, the overall alcohol relief scale incrementally explained alcohol use and problems beyond positive and negative alcohol expectancies and alcohol affect. The Alcohol Relief Questionnaire (ARQ) advances the conceptualization of relief as a multidimensional construct stemming from self-medication with alcohol. The measure and its subscales may be used to inform etiology, prevention, and treatment of alcohol use and misuse. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Development and Validation of the Drama Triangle Scale: Are You a Victim, Rescuer, or Persecutor?

The drama triangle is a theoretical framework to describe and understand the roles (Victim, Rescuer, and Persecutor) that people assume and perpetuate in interpersonal relationships, especially in contexts of "drama" or conflict. The Drama Triangle scale was developed, validated, and psychometrically scrutinized across three independent samples of adults. In Study 1 (N = 326), the initial pool of items was generated based on reviewing the literature. Exploratory factor analysis supported the three-factor structure of Victim (damsel in distress), Rescuer (hero), and Persecutor (villain) roles. In Study 2 (N = 342), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) produced satisfactory fit indices. In Study 3 (N = 301), another CFA successfully cross-validated the final set of items. Furthermore, tests of convergent, discriminant, and criterion validities evaluated this scale against previously validated external measures of attachment styles, anxiety, stress, depression, positive emotions, and negative emotions. The drama triangle subscales tended to be associated with non-secure attachment styles and higher anxiety, stress, depression, and negative emotions, but results varied depending on the specific drama subscale. The Victim subscale was most strongly connected with undesirable outcomes, supporting the theoretical premise that Victims receive blame from Persecutors and help from Rescuers. This measurement instrument helps to conceptualize, measure, and understand the drama roles of Victim, Rescuer, and Persecutor that people enact in interpersonal relationships. The scale offers theoretical and applied implications for administration in future research on interpersonal conflict, aggression, violence, and other domains.

Identifying factors that increase the likelihood for alcohol-induced blackouts in the prepartying context.

The present study examined risk factors related to "blacking out" (e.g., temporary periods of memory loss during drinking) during preparty drinking events (i.e., pregaming, predrinking). Participants were students from two universities on the West Coast who reported past month prepartying (N = 2,546) in online surveys administered in the fall of 2008. Among these students, 25% (n = 636) reported blacking out during at least one occasion in which they prepartied in the past month. A logistic regression model underscored that Greek student affiliation, family history of alcohol abuse, frequency of prepartying, and both playing drinking games and consuming shots of liquor while prepartying increased the likelihood of blacking out. Limitations and implications for future research and collegiate prevention strategies are discussed.

Underestimations of blood alcohol concentration predict event-specific negative consequences.

The current study sought to establish in vivo misperception of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) as a predictor of event-specific alcohol-consumption-related negative consequences. During spring 2010, 225 (56.4% male) college students, who had consumed at least one alcoholic drink within the 2 hr prior to assessment, completed a questionnaire, gave a breath sample to assess breath alcohol content, and later completed a follow-up questionnaire. Underestimation of BAC was predictive of event-specific, alcohol-consumption-related negative consequences, over and above other factors including total drinks consumed. This study highlights the need for more focused BAC education strategies at American universities.

Marijuana use among Latino adolescents: gender differences in protective familial factors.

Given the important contextual function of family dynamics and traditional gender roles in Latino cultures, parental influences on substance use among Latino adolescents may differ across genders. This study examined associations between family factors (parental monitoring, parent-child communication, family cohesion, and familism) and marijuana use among 1,369 Latino adolescents in Southern California. Students from seven schools completed surveys in 9th and 11th grades. Longitudinal hierarchical linear regression analyses evaluated the associations between family factors in 9th grade and lifetime marijuana use in 11th grade, as well as gender differences in these associations. Girls reported higher levels of parental monitoring, parental communication, and familism than boys did, but there were no gender differences in family cohesiveness. In a regression model controlling for covariates and previous marijuana use, parent-child communication and family cohesion in 9th grade were each uniquely predictive of lower levels of marijuana consumption in 11th grade. Gender was a statistical moderator, such that higher levels of parent-child communication predicted lower marijuana use among boys, whereas girls' use was relatively low regardless of parent-child communication levels. Results are discussed in the light of the concurrent socialization processes of family and gender in Latino culture and its relation to preventing delinquent behaviors such as marijuana use.

Understanding early-onset drug and alcohol outcomes among youth: the role of family structure, social factors, and interpersonal perceptions of use.

Research on adolescents focuses increasingly on features of the family in predicting and preventing illicit substance use. Multivariate analyses of data from the National Survey of Parents and Youth (N=4173) revealed numerous significant differences on risk variables associated with family structure on adolescent drug-related perceptions and substance use. Youth from dual-parent households were least likely to use drugs and were monitored more closely than single-parent youth (p<0.001). A path analytic model estimated to illuminate linkages among theoretically implicated variables revealed that family income and child's gender (p<0.001), along with family structure (p<0.05), affected parental monitoring, but not parental warmth. Monitoring and warmth, in turn, predicted adolescents' social and interpersonal perceptions of drug use (p<0.001), and both variables anticipated adolescents' actual drug use one year later (p<0.001). Results reconfirm the importance of parental monitoring and warmth and demonstrate the link between these variables, adolescents' social and intrapersonal beliefs, and their use of illicit substances.