Schizophrenia in the genetic era: a review from development history, clinical features and genomic research approaches to insights of susceptibility genes.

Schizophrenia is a devastating neuropsychiatric disorder affecting 1% of the world population and ranks as one of the disorders providing the most severe burden for society. Schizophrenia etiology remains obscure involving multi-risk factors, such as genetic, environmental, nutritional, and developmental factors. Complex interactions of genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in the etiology of schizophrenia. This review provides an overview of the historical origins, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnosis, clinical symptoms and corresponding treatment of schizophrenia. In addition, as schizophrenia is a polygenic, genetic disorder caused by the combined action of multiple micro-effective genes, we further detail several approaches, such as candidate gene association study (CGAS) and genome-wide association study (GWAS), which are commonly used in schizophrenia genomics studies. A number of GWASs about schizophrenia have been performed with the hope to identify novel, consistent and influential risk genetic factors. Finally, some schizophrenia susceptibility genes have been identified and reported in recent years and their biological functions are also listed. This review may serve as a summary of past research on schizophrenia genomics and susceptibility genes (NRG1, DISC1, RELN, BDNF, MSI2), which may point the way to future schizophrenia genetics research. In addition, depending on the above discovery of susceptibility genes and their exact function, the development and application of antipsychotic drugs will be promoted in the future.

Hybridization Chain Reaction-Enhanced Biocatalytic Precipitation on Flower-like Bi2S3: Toward Organic Photoelectrochemical Transistor Aptasensing with High Transconductance.

Organic photoelectrochemical transistor (OPECT) bioanalysis has recently emerged as a promising avenue for biomolecular sensing, providing insight into the next-generation of photoelectrochemical biosensing and organic bioelectronics. Herein, this work validates the direct enzymatic biocatalytic precipitation (BCP) modulation on a flower-like Bi2S3 photosensitive gate for high-efficacy OPECT operation with high transconductance (gm), which is exemplified by a prostate-specific antigen (PSA)-dependent hybridization chain reaction (HCR) and subsequent alkaline phosphatase (ALP)-enabled BCP reaction toward PSA aptasensing. It has been shown that light illumination could ideally achieve the maximized gm at zero gate bias, and BCP could efficiently modulate the device's interfacial capacitance and charge-transfer resistance, resulting in a significantly changed channel current (IDS). The as-developed OPECT aptasensor realizes good analysis performance for PSA with a detection limit of 10 fg mL-1. This work features direct BCP modulation of organic transistors and is expected to stimulate further interest in exploring advanced BCP-interfaced bioelectronics with unknown possibilities.

Construction of Zr-Metal-Organic Frameworks-Based Composite Materials toward Anhydrous Proton Conduction and Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction.

Metal-organic frameworks constructed from Zr usually possess excellent chemical and physical stability. Therefore, they have become attractive platforms in various fields. In this work, two families of hybrid materials based on ZrSQU have been designed and synthesized, named Im@ZrSQU and Cu@ZrSQU, respectively. Im@ZrSQU was prepared through the impregnation method and employed for proton conduction. Im@ZrSQU exhibited terrific proton conduction performance in an anhydrous environment, with the highest proton conduction value of 3.6 × 10-2 S cm-1 at 110 °C. In addition, Cu@ZrSQU was synthesized via the photoinduction method for the photoreduction of CO2, which successfully promoted the conversion of CO2 into CO and achieved the CO generation rate of up to 12.4 µmol g-1 h-1. The photocatalytic performance of Cu@ZrSQU is derived from the synergistic effect of Cu NPs and ZrSQU. Based on an in-depth study and discussion toward ZrSQU, we provide a versatile platform with applications in the field of proton conduction and photocatalysis, which will guide researchers in their further studies.

PACAP/PAC1-R activation contributes to hyperalgesia in 6-OHDA-induced Parkinson's disease model rats via promoting excitatory synaptic transmission of spinal dorsal horn neurons.

Pain is a common annoying non-motor symptom in Parkinson's disease (PD) that causes distress to patients. Treatment for PD pain remains a big challenge, as its underlying mechanisms are elusive. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and its receptor PAC1-R play important roles in regulating a variety of pathophysiological processes. In this study, we investigated whether PACAP/PAC1-R signaling was involved in the mechanisms of PD pain. 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced PD model was established in rats. Behavioral tests, electrophysiological and Western blotting analysis were conducted 3 weeks later. We found that 6-OHDA rats had significantly lower mechanical paw withdrawal 50% threshold in von Frey filament test and shorter tail flick latency, while mRNA levels of Pacap and Adcyap1r1 (gene encoding PAC1-R) in the spinal dorsal horn were significantly upregulated. Whole-cell recordings from coronal spinal cord slices at L4-L6 revealed that the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) in dorsal horn neurons was significantly increased, which was reversed by application of a PAC1-R antagonist PACAP 6-38 (250 nM). Furthermore, we demonstrated that intrathecal microinjection of PACAP 6-38 (0.125, 0.5, 2 µg) dose-dependently ameliorated the mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia in 6-OHDA rats. Inhibition of PACAP/PAC1-R signaling significantly suppressed the activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in spinal dorsal horn of 6-OHDA rats. Microinjection of pAAV-Adcyap1r1 into L4-L6 spinal dorsal horn alleviated hyperalgesia in 6-OHDA rats. Intrathecal microinjection of ERK antagonist PD98059 (10 µg) significantly alleviated hyperalgesia in 6-OHDA rats associated with the inhibition of sEPSCs in dorsal horn neurons. In addition, we found that serum PACAP-38 concentration was significantly increased in PD patients with pain, and positively correlated with numerical rating scale score. In conclusion, activation of PACAP/PAC1-R induces the development of PD pain and targeting PACAP/PAC1-R is an alternative strategy for treating PD pain.

Safinamide alleviates hyperalgesia via inhibiting hyperexcitability of DRG neurons in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease.

Pain is a widespread non-motor symptom that presents significant treatment challenges in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). Safinamide, a new drug recently introduced for PD treatment, has demonstrated analgesic effects on pain in PD patients, though the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. To investigate the analgesic and anti-PD effect of safinamide, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD mouse model was used, and rasagiline as positive control on motor symptoms. Notably, only safinamide alleviated hyperalgesia in MPTP mice. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons revealed hyperexcitability in MPTP mice, which safinamide counteracted in a concentration-dependent manner. The voltage clamp further demonstrated that sodium current in DRG neurons of MPTP mice was enhanced and safinamide reduced sodium current density. RT-qPCR identified upregulated Nav1.7 and Nav1.8 transcripts (Scn9a and Scn10a) in DRG neurons of MPTP mice. Our results suggest that safinamide could relieve hyperalgesia by inhibiting DRG neuron hyperexcitability in MPTP mice.

[Factors Affecting Nitrate Concentrations and Nitrogen and Oxygen Isotope Values of Effluents from Waste Water Treatment Plant].

Urban domestic sewage is one of the important nitrate (NO-3) sources for surface water; however, their NO-3 concentrations and nitrogen and oxygen isotope values (δ15N-NO-3 and δ18O-NO-3) remain unclear, and the factors affecting NO-3 concentrations and δ15N-NO-3 and δ18O-NO-3 values of effluents in the waste water treatment plant (WWTP) are still unknown. Water samples in the Jiaozuo WWTP were collected to illustrate this question. Influents, clarified water in the secondary sedimentation tank (SST), and effluents of the WWTP were sampled every 8 h. The ammonia (NH+4) concentrations, NO-3 concentrations, and δ15N-NO-3 and δ18O-NO-3 values were analyzed to elucidate the nitrogen transfers through different treatment sections and illustrate the factors affecting the effluent NO-3 concentrations and isotope ratios. The results indicated that ① the mean NH+4 concentration was (22.86±2.16) mg·L-1 in the influent and decreased to (3.78±1.98) mg·L-1 in the SST and continuously reduced to (2.70±1.98) mg·L-1 in the effluent of the WWTP. The median NO-3 concentration was 0.62 mg·L-1 in the influent, and the average NO-3 concentration increased to (33.48±3.10) mg·L-1 in the SST and gradually increased to (37.20±4.34) mg·L-1 in the effluent of the WWTP. ② The mean values of δ15N-NO-3 and δ18O-NO-3 were (17.1±10.7)‰ and (19.2±2.2)‰ in the influent of the WWTP, the median values of δ15N-NO-3 and δ18O-NO-3 were 11.9‰ and 6.4‰ in the SST, and the average values were (12.6±1.9)‰ and (5.7±0.8)‰ in the effluent of the WWTP. ③ The NH+4 concentrations of influent had significant differences compared to those in the SST and the effluent (P<0.05). The reduction of NH+4 concentrations in the SST was due to the above nitrification during the aerobic treatment process, which transferred NH+4 to NO-3. The NH+4 concentrations in the SST had no significant differences with that in the effluent of the WWTP (P>0.05). ④ The NO-3 concentrations in the influent had significant differences with those in the SST and the effluent (P<0.05), and minor NO-3 concentrations but relatively high δ15N-NO-3 and δ18O-NO-3 values in the influent were probably due to denitrification during the pipe sewage transportation. The obviously increased NO-3 concentrations (P<0.05) but decreased δ18O-NO-3 values (P<0.05) in the SST and the effluent resulted from water oxygen incorporation during the nitrification. The above results confirmed the impacts of aerobic and anaerobic treatment processes on NO-3 concentrations and isotope ratios of effluent from the WWTP and provided scientific basis for the identification of sewage contributions to surface water nitrate via average δ15N-NO-3 and δ18O-NO-3 values.

Positive Association of TEAD1 With Schizophrenia in a Northeast Chinese Han Population.

OBJECTIVE: Schizophrenia is a complex and devastating psychiatric disorder with a strong genetic background. However, much uncertainty still exists about the role of genetic susceptibility in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. TEA domain transcription factor 1 (TEAD1) is a transcription factor associated with neurodevelopment and has modulating effects on various nervous system diseases. In the current study, we performed a case-control association study in a Northeast Chinese Han population to explore the characteristics of pathogenic TEAD1 polymorphisms and potential association with schizophrenia. METHODS: We recruited a total of 721 schizophrenia patients and 1,195 healthy controls in this study. The 9 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the gene region of TEAD1 were selected and genotyped. RESULTS: The genetic association analyses showed that five SNPs (rs12289262, rs6485989, rs4415740, rs7113256, and rs1866709) were significantly different between schizophrenia patients and healthy controls in allele or/and genotype frequencies. After Bonferroni correction, the association of three SNPs (rs4415740, rs7113256, and rs1866709) with schizophrenia were still evident. Haplotype analysis revealed that two strong linkage disequilibrium blocks (rs6485989-rs4415740-rs7113256 and rs16911710-rs12364619-rs1866709) were globally associated with schizophrenia. Four haplotypes (C-C-C and T-T-T, rs6485989-rs4415740-rs7113256; G-T-A and G-T-G, rs16911710-rs12364619-rs1866709) were significantly different between schizophrenia patients and healthy controls. CONCLUSION: The current findings indicated that the human TEAD1 gene has a genetic association with schizophrenia in the Chinese Han population and may act as a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia.

The role of pregnane X receptor (PXR) in substance metabolism.

As a member of the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily, pregnane X receptor (PXR; NR1I2) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of xenobiotics and endobiotics in mammals. The tissue distribution of PXR is parallel to its function with high expression in the liver and small intestine and moderate expression in the kidney, stomach, skin, and blood-brain barrier, which are organs and tissues in frequent contact with xenobiotics. PXR was first recognized as an exogenous substance receptor regulating metabolizing enzymes and transporters and functioning in detoxification and drug metabolism in the liver. However, further research revealed that PXR acts as an equally important endogenous substance receptor in the metabolism and homeostasis of endogenous substances. In this review, we summarized the functions of PXR in metabolism of different substances such as glucose, lipid, bile acid, vitamin, minerals, and endocrines, and also included insights of the application of PXR ligands (drugs) in specific diseases.

Inhibition of Spinal 5-HT3 Receptor and Spinal Dorsal Horn Neuronal Excitability Alleviates Hyperalgesia in a Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease.

Pain in Parkinson's disease (PD) is increasingly recognized as a major factor associated with poor life quality of PD patients. However, classic therapeutic drugs supplying dopamine have limited therapeutic effects on PD-related pain. This suggests that there is a mechanism outside the dopamine system that causes pain in PD. Our previous study demonstrated that 6-OHDA induced PD model manifested hyperalgesia to thermal and mechanical stimuli and decreased serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) in the spinal dorsal horn (SDH). Several 5-HT receptor subtypes have been confirmed to be associated with nociception in the spinal cord, such as 5-HT1A receptor, 5-HT1B receptor, 5-HT2 receptor, 5-HT3 receptor, and 5-HT7 receptor. Most research has shown that 5-HT1A receptor and 5-HT3 receptor play a key role in pain transmission in the spinal cord. We hypothesized that hyperalgesia of 6-OHDA rats may be related to increased excitability of SDH neurons, and functional change of 5-HT3 receptor may reverse the hyperalgesia of 6-OHDA lesioned rats and decrease cell excitability of SDH neurons. To test this hypothesis, we used whole-cell patch-clamp and pharmacological methods to evaluate the effect of 5-HT3 receptor and 5-HT1A receptor on the hyperalgesia of 6-OHDA rats. The results suggested that increased excitability in SDH neurons could be reversed by 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron (20 µmol/L) and palosetron (10 µmol/L), but not 5-HT3 receptor agonist m-CPBG (30 µmol/L) and SR 57,727 (10 µmol/L), 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH DPAT (10 µmol/L) and eptapirone (10 µmol/L) and 5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635 (10 µmol/L) and p-MPPI (10 µmol/L). Intrathecal injection of ondansetron (0.1 mg/kg) but not m-CPBG (0.1 mg/kg), 8-OH DPAT (0.1 mg/kg), and WAY-100635 (0.1 mg/kg) significantly attenuated the mechanical hyperalgesia and thermal hyperalgesia in 6-OHDA lesioned rats. In conclusion, the present study suggests that inhibition of spinal 5-HT3 receptor and SDH neuronal excitability alleviates hyperalgesia in PD rats. Our study provides a novel mechanism or therapeutic strategy for pain in patients with PD.

Development of an immune-related prognostic index associated with osteosarcoma.

Tumor immunity is closely associated with the prognosis of tumors, including osteosarcoma (OS). The aim of the present study was to construct an immune-related prognostic index (PI) to predict the prognosis of OS. Herein, OS expression data were sourced from the Therapeutically Applicable Research to Generate Effective Treatments (TARGET) database. We divided the OS patients into nonmetastatic and metastatic groups, allowing differentially immune-related genes (DIRGs) to be selected. After DIRGs were further investigated by enrichment analysis, four keys prognostic IRGs (CD79A, CSF3R, MTNR1B and NPPC) were identified using a Cox proportional hazards model. Then, an immune-related prognostic index was constructed. Finally, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was employed to further explore the underlying mechanisms. The difference in tumor-infiltrating immune cell (TIIC) abundance was also discussed. In our study, eight upregulated genes and 30 downregulated genes were identified. Several Gene Ontology (GO) terms and the most significantly enriched KEGG pathways were immune-associated functions and pathways. Four genes, including CD79A, CSF3R, MTNR1B and NPPC, were used to establish a risk assessment model for evaluating OS prognosis. GSEA revealed that the risk score was related to cytokine receptor interaction and to the chemokine and B cell receptor signaling pathways. Furthermore, high risk markedly related to the infiltration of several immune cell types, including M2 macrophages, naïve CD4 T cells, and CD8 T cells. In sum, we developed a survival model for OS. The underlying molecular mechanisms of the high-risk group may affect immune-related biological processes and TIICs.Abbreviations TARGET: Therapeutically Applicable Research To Generate Effective Treatments; PI: Prognostic index; OS: Osteosarcoma; DIRGs: Differentially immune-related genes; GSEA: Gene set enrichment analysis; TIIC: Tumor-infiltrating immune cell.

Positive Association of Human SHC3 Gene with Schizophrenia in a Northeast Chinese Han Population.

OBJECTIVE: Schizophrenia is one of the most devastating neuropsychiatric disorders. Genetic epidemiological studies have confirmed that schizophrenia is a genetic disease. Genes promoting neurodevelopment may be potential candidates for schizophrenia. As an adaptor linking a number of tyrosine kinase receptors in multiple intracellular signaling cascades, Src homology 2 domain containing transforming protein 3 (SHC3) is a member of the Shc-like adaptor protein family, and expressed predominantly in the mature neurons of the central nervous system (CNS). In the present study, we aimed to investigate the association of SHC3 and schizophrenia. METHODS: An independent case-control association study was performed in a sample including 710 schizophrenia patients and 1314 healthy controls from a Northeast Chinese Han population. RESULTS: The allelic and genotypic association analyses showed that four SNPs in SHC3 significantly associated with schizophrenia (rs2316280, rs4877041, rs944485 and rs7021743). The haplotype composing of these four SNPs also showed significantly individual and global association with schizophrenia. CONCLUSION: Our present results suggest SHC3 as a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia.

Positive association between PTN polymorphisms and schizophrenia in Northeast Chinese Han population.

As a severely and highly heritable psychotic disorder, schizophrenia has become a serious public health problem in modern society. Pleiotrophin (PTN) is a secreted cell cytokine associated with the extracellular matrix and acts as a growth factor. PTN is mainly expressed in neuroectodermal and mesodermal tissues, indicating its effect in neuron migration and epithelium-mesenchyme interactions. Whereas PTN is associated with some neurodegenerative diseases and has modulating effects on them. In this study, we aimed to investigate the association between PTN polymorphisms and schizophrenia in an independent case-control sample-set including 738 schizophrenia patients and 1085 healthy controls. Of the 13 selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), five showed significant differences in allele or/and genotype frequencies between patients and controls: rs3959914 (genotype: χ = 11.5217, P = 0.0032); rs11765480 (genotype: χ = 10.6620, P = 0.0049); rs1473355 (genotype: χ = 8.3902, P = 0.0151); rs322246 (allele: χ = 5.5954, P = 0.0180); rs322240 (genotype: χ = 8.8429, P = 0.0121; allele: χ = 8.7802, P = 0.0031). The haplotype analysis of the selected SNPs showed different haplotype frequencies for one block (rs322240, rs322246) between cases and controls (global: χ = 9.0290, P = 0.0110; A-G: χ = 8.985, P = 0.0027; C-A: χ = 5.814, P = 0.0159). Our present results indicate PTN as a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia.

Decolorization of an azo dye Orange G in aqueous solution by Fenton oxidation process: effect of system parameters and kinetic study.

To establish cost-efficient operating conditions for potential application of Fenton oxidation process to treat wastewater containing an azo dye Orange G (OG), some important operating parameters such as pH value of solutions, dosages of H(2)O(2) and Fe(2+), temperature, presence/absence of chloride ion and concentration of the dye, which effect on the decolorization of OG in aqueous solution by Fenton oxidation have been investigated systematically. In addition, the decolorization kinetics of OG was also elucidated based on the experimental data. The results showed that a suitable decolorization condition was selected as initial pH 4.0, H(2)O(2) dosage 1.0 x 10(-2)M and molar ratio of [H(2)O(2)]/[Fe(2+)] 286:1. The decolorization of OG enhanced with the increasing of reaction temperature but decreased as a presence of chloride ion. On the given conditions, for 2.21 x 10(-5) to 1.11 x 10(-4)M of OG, the decolorization efficiencies within 60 min were more than 94.6%. The decolorization kinetics of OG by Fenton oxidation process followed the second-order reaction kinetics, and the apparent activation energy E, was detected to be 34.84 kJ mol(-1). The results can provide fundamental knowledge for the treatment of wastewater containing OG and/or other azo dyes by Fenton oxidation process.

[Effect of Naoxintong Capsule on Inflammation in Peripheral Ischemic Tissue and Its Mechanism].

OBJECTIVE: To study the mechanism of naoxintong capsule (NXT) -inhibiting peripheral ischemic inflammation. METHODS: Mice were randomly double-blindly divided into 3 groups: sham-operation group, model group and NXT group. Both model and NXT groups underwent the hind limb ischemia (HLI) surgery followed by oral gavage with saline or NXT, respectively, one hour after operation. Three days after operation, the percentages of neutrophils and macrophages in the gastrocnemius muscle were examined by flow cytomety and immunohistochemical method. The changes in gene and protein expressions induced by NXT were examined by real-time PCR and protein chip, respectively. The changes of signaling pathways were analyzed. RESULTS: Compared with sham oparation and model groups, NXT could decrease the ratios of neutrophils and macrophages in gastrocnemius inflammation site (P＜0.01), and downregulate the mRNA expression of gene EMR1 (P＜0.01). NXT reduced the expression of TNF-α and IL-1ß at both mRNA (P＜0.001) and protein levels (P＜0.05). The proteomic analysis showed that the use of NXT resulted in the expression changes of 13 proteins. The expression of 6 cytokines was increased, and the secretion of 7 proteins was upregulated. Besides, most of identified 13 proteins were involved in the function regulation of other immune cells. CONCLUSION: NXT can significantly alleviate ischemia-induced peripheral inflammation by reducing the ratio of immune cells and altering the expression patterns of mRNA and protein. The expression changes provide theoretical guidance and the potential targets for the clinical use of NXT in the treatment of ischemia-induced peripheral inflammatory diseases.

Astragalus polysaccharide improves muscle atrophy from dexamethasone- and peroxide-induced injury in vitro.

Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) is an important bioactive component of Astragalus membranaceus Bunge (Leguminosae) that has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for treating muscle wasting, a serious complication with complex mechanism manifested as myofibers atrophy and satellite cells apoptosis. In this study, the anti-atrophy and anti-apoptotic activity of Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) was characterized in C2C12 skeletal muscle myotubes and myoblasts. APS inhibited dexamethasone-induced atrophy by restoring phosphorylation of Akt, m-TOR, P70s6k, rpS6 and FoxO3A/FoxO1. The targets that protected C2C12 myoblasts from damage by H2O2 were promoting cells proliferation and inhibiting cells apoptosis. The protective mechanisms involved mitochondrial pathway and death receptor pathway. Moreover, Antioxidant effect of APS was also detected in this work. Our findings suggested that APS could be explored as a protective and perhaps as a therapeutic agent in the management of muscle wasting.