The Prevalence of Advanced Liver Fibrosis Among Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Single-Centre Experience in Penang, Malaysia.

Objectives: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is an important risk factor for Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It worsens the course of NAFLD. We investigated the prevalence of advanced liver fibrosis among patients with T2DM. Our secondary objectives were to describe patient demographics, to explore associated clinical factors, and to compare FIB-4 Index and liver stiffness measurement (LSM). Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study on 258 patients with T2DM duration of at least 10 years. Transient elastography (FibroScan®) was performed on all subjects. Advanced liver fibrosis was diagnosed based on LSM results. The FIB-4 index formula was used. Results: The prevalence of advanced liver fibrosis was 22.1%. Associated factors were body mass index (BMI), alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), triglyceride (TG) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Independent factors were BMI and GGT (p=0.003 and p<0.001). FIB-4 index has 30.0% sensitivity, 85.0% specificity, 38.7% positive predictive value, and 79.4% negative predictive value in detecting advanced liver fibrosis by LSM criteria. Conclusion: Our study confirmed the high prevalence of advanced liver fibrosis among patients with long-standing T2DM. This study suggests the benefit of advanced liver fibrosis screening in patients with a minimum of 10 years of T2DM, especially those with high BMI and GGT.

Comparing the cost, glycaemic control and medication adherence of utilizing patients' own medicines (POMs) versus usual dispensing among diabetic patients in an outpatient setting.

BACKGROUND: Millions worth of unused drugs particularly those indicated for chronic diseases such as diabetes were returned and disposed leading to substantial wastage. Use of patients' own medications (POMs) in the inpatient setting has reduced wastage and saved cost. The impact of utilizing POMs in the outpatient setting has hitherto not been determined. PURPOSE: This study aims to compare the cost, medication adherence and glycaemic control of utilizing POMs versus usual dispensing. METHODS: Prospective randomized controlled study was conducted among diabetic patients that required monthly medication refill in the Outpatient Pharmacy in 2017. Patients who consented were equally divided into POMs and control groups. Both groups brought excess medications from home at week-0 and week-12. Patients in the POMs group brought excess medications monthly and sufficient amount of drugs were added until the next refill date. Drugs were dispensed as usual in the control group. Total cost consisting of the cost of drugs, staff and building was calculated. Glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) was measured at baseline and week-12. Adherence was measured based on pill counting. RESULTS: Thirty patients aged 56.77 ± 14.67 years with 13.37 ± 7.36 years of diabetes participated. Baseline characteristics were similar between the groups. POMs minimized the total cost by 38.96% which translated to a cost saving of USD 42.76 ± 6.98, significantly different versus USD 0.02 ± 0.52 in the control group, p = 0.025. Mean HbA1c reduced significantly (-0.79%, p = 0.016) in the POMs group but not significant in the control group (-0.11%, p = 0.740). Medication adherence improved significantly in both groups at week-12 (p < 0.010). Nevertheless, patients in the POMs group were more adherent, 87.20% vs. 66.32%, p = 0.034. CONCLUSION: Utilizing POMs resulted in cost saving, improved adherence and better glycaemic control. Use of POMs should be practiced in the outpatient pharmacy to reduce wastage and cost.

Evaluation of illness perceptions and their associations with glycaemic control, medication adherence and chronic kidney disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients in Malaysia.

BACKGROUND: Illness perceptions (IP) involve coping strategies and behavioural responses that can influence glycaemic control. Despite the importance of good glycaemic control, the majority of patients in Asia are not achieving glycaemic targets. An evaluation of IP in association with glycaemic control, medication adherence and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in Type 2 diabetes mellitus patients (T2DM) was carried out in an outpatient setting in Malaysia METHOD: A cross-sectional study was conducted using the Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire in a purposive sample of 384 T2DM patients. RESULTS: There were 55.7% females, median age was 58.2 years and median duration of diabetes was 13 years. The majority (79.4%) of patients had poor diabetes control (HbA1c ≥ 7.0%) and 39.6% of patients had low medication adherence. Patients with good glycaemic control had a higher Timeline Acute/Chronic and Emotional Representations score, hence they held the correct belief that diabetes is chronic and experienced negative emotions. Highly adherent patients had a higher Illness Coherence (χ2 = 21.385, p < 0.001) score but a lower Consequences (χ2 = 17.592, p < 0.001) and Emotional Representations (χ2 = 16.849, p < 0.001) score indicating good understanding and less negative perceptions of disease burden. Patients in a more advanced stage of CKD had a significantly higher Timeline Cyclical score (χ2 = 18.718, p = 0.001), believing that diabetes was unpredictable. CONCLUSION: Dimensions of IP have been shown to be significantly associated with the assessed variables, therefore intervention studies with education, support and counselling should be conducted in Asia with the ultimate aim of empowering patients through IP-targeted management.

Challenges in the classification and management of Asian youth-onset diabetes mellitus- lessons learned from a single centre study.

It remains widely perceived that early-onset Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) in children and adolescents is rare and clinically distinct from Type 1 Diabetes (T1D). We studied the challenges of classifying subtypes of early-onset diabetes using clinical features and biomarkers, and management of these patients. We reviewed retrospectively the record of patients < 25 years old who attended the diabetes clinic in Penang General Hospital, Malaysia between 1st December 2012 and 30th June 2015. We examined their clinical features, C-peptide and pancreatic autoantibodies. Comparisons were made between T1D and T2D for magnitude, demographics, metabolic status and complications. We studied 176 patients with a mean age of 20 ± 3.7 years, 43.2% had T1D, 13.6% had T2D, and 13.6% had mixed features of both. When tested, pancreatic autoantibodies were positive in 59.4% of the T1D. T2D presented two years later than T1D at 14.3 years, 20% were asymptomatic at presentation, and 50% required insulin supplementation despite fasting c-peptide of > 250 pmol/L. HbA1C of ≤ 8.0% (64 mmol/mol) was achieved in 30.3% of T1D, 58.3% of T2D on OAD and 16.7% of T2D on insulin. The T2D had greater cardiovascular risk with higher body mass index, more dyslipidaemia, higher blood pressure and earlier onset of nephropathy. The overlapping clinical features, variable autoimmunity, and beta-cell loss complicate classification of young diabetes. Pancreatic autoantibodies and C-peptide did not always predict diabetes subtypes nor respond to insulin. The poor metabolic control and high cardiovascular risk burden among the T2D highlight the need for population-based study and focused intervention.

Preserved glucagon-like peptide-1 responses to oral glucose, but reduced incretin effect, insulin secretion and sensitivity in young Asians with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: Youth onset type 2 diabetes mellitus (YT2DM) is a globally rising phenomenon with substantial Asians representation. The understanding of its pathophysiology is derived largely from studies in the obese African-American and Caucasian populations, while studies on incretin effect are scarce. We examined the insulin resistance, ß-cell function (BC), glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 hormone and incretin effect in Asian YT2DM. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This case-control study recruited 25 Asian YT2DM and 15 healthy controls, matched for gender, ethnicity and body mass index. Serum glucose, insulin, C peptide and GLP-1 were sampled during 2-hour oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTTs) and 1-hour intravenous glucose tolerance tests (IVGTTs). Insulin sensitivity was derived from the Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index (QUICKI), Oral Glucose Insulin Sensitivity Index (OGIS) in OGTT and surrogate index of SI from the minimal model (calculated SI, CSI). Acute insulin response (AIR) was obtained from IVGTT. Total BC was computed as incremental area under the curve of insulin/incremental area under the curve of glucose, during OGTT (BCOG) and IVGTT (BCIV), respectively. Disposition index (DI) was calculated using the product of insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion. GLP-1 response to oral glucose was calculated as incremental area under the curve of GLP-1 (ΔAUCGLP-1). Per cent incretin effect was estimated as 100×(BCOG-BCIV)/BCOG). RESULTS: The YT2DM had marked impairment in BC (>80% reduction in AIR and BCOG, p<0.001) and lower QUICKI (p<0.001), OGIS (p<0.001) and CSI (p=0.015) compared with controls. There was no difference in GLP-1 at all time points and ΔAUCGLP-1 but the per cent incretin effect was reduced in the YT2DM compared with controls (12.1±8.93 vs 70.0±4.03, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Asian YT2DM showed similar GLP-1 response to oral glucose as controls but reduced incretin effect, BC and insulin sensitivity. The lack of compensatory mechanisms, as shown by the DI may be partly ascribed to the impaired incretin effect, similar to that of adult T2DM. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NMRR-12-1042-13254.

Impact of Vitamin D Replacement on Markers of Glucose Metabolism and Cardio-Metabolic Risk in Women with Former Gestational Diabetes--A Double-Blind, Randomized Controlled Trial.

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) and vitamin D deficiency are related to insulin resistance and impaired beta cell function, with heightened risk for future development of diabetes. We evaluated the impact of vitamin D supplementation on markers of glucose metabolism and cardio metabolic risk in Asian women with former GDM and hypovitaminosis D. In this double blind, randomized controlled trial, 26 participants were randomized to receive either daily 4000 IU vitamin D3 or placebo capsules. 75 g Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) and biochemistry profiles were performed at baseline and 6 month visits. Mathematical models, using serial glucose, insulin and C peptide measurements from OGTT, were employed to calculate insulin sensitivity and beta cell function. Thirty three (76%) women with former GDM screened had vitamin D level of <50 nmol/L at baseline. Supplementation, when compared with placebo, resulted in increased vitamin D level (+51.1 nmol/L vs 0.2 nmol/L, p<0.001) and increased fasting insulin (+20% vs 18%, p = 0.034). The vitamin D group also demonstrated a 30% improvement in disposition index and an absolute 0.2% (2 mmol/mol) reduction in HbA1c. There was no clear change in insulin sensitivity or markers of cardio metabolic risk. This study highlighted high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among Asian women with former GDM. Six months supplementation with 4000 IU of vitamin D3 safely restored the vitamin D level, improved basal pancreatic beta-cell function and ameliorated the metabolic state. There was no effect on markers of cardio metabolic risk. Further mechanistic studies exploring the role of vitamin D supplementation on glucose homeostasis among different ethnicities may be needed to better inform future recommendations for these women with former GDM at high risk of both hypovitaminosis D and future diabetes.

Prevalence, risk factors, and clinical features of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy in multiethnic Malaysian patients with Graves' disease.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO) has been reported to be lower in several Asian populations than in Caucasians. The risk factors for TAO that have been demonstrated in Caucasians have not been studied in Asian populations. The aim of this study, therefore, was to determine the prevalence, risk factors, and clinical features of TAO in a cohort of multiethnic Malaysian patients with Graves' disease (GD). METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study of 167 consecutive patients with GD who attended two endocrine clinics from October 2003 to September 2004. The patients were classified as Malay, Chinese, and Indian based on their ethnic characteristics as detailed in the national identity card. The patients were examined by a single individual for the presence and characteristics of TAO. Thyroid function tests were performed, and smoking history and the extent of smoking history were recorded. RESULTS: The prevalence rate of TAO using the American Academy of Ophthalmology diagnostic criteria was 34.7%. This increased to 46.7% if lower lid retraction was added as an alternate criterion. The observed prevalence rate was higher than expected in the Chinese patient population based on a comparison with the Malay and Indian patients, but this was not statistically significant. Smokers with GD were at 2.75 times greater risk of TAO than nonsmokers (p = 0.019). Male gender was shown to confer higher risk of TAO on univariate analysis (p = 0.003), but not on multivariate analysis. The percentage of males who smoked in the study group was relatively high (79%). The most common presentation of TAO was exophthalmos, followed by lid retraction. CONCLUSIONS: TAO has relatively high prevalence rate (34.7%) in three populations of Asian patients with GD. This is similar to that reported for Caucasian patients with GD. As in Caucasian patients, smoking increases the risk of TAO. In the Asian populations we studied, exophthalmos was the most common eye sign. However, lower lid retraction was also common and present in 60% of cases with other signs of TAO. In Chinese, Malay, and Indian Asians with GD, lower lid retraction should be a diagnostic criterion for TAO.