Longitudinal neutralization activities on authentic Omicron variant provided by three doses of BBIBP-CorV vaccination during one year.

The majority of people in China have been immunized with the inactivated viral vaccine BBIBP-CorV. The emergence of the Omicron variant raised the concerns about protection efficacy of the inactivated viral vaccine in China. However, longitudinal neutralization data describing protection efficacy against Omicron variant is still lacking. Here we present one-year longitudinal neutralization data of BBIBP-CorV on authentic Omicron, Delta, and wild-type strains using 224 sera collected from 14 volunteers who have finished three doses BBIBP-CorV. The sera were also subjected for monitoring the SARS-CoV-2 specific IgG, IgA, and IgM responses on protein and peptide microarrays. The neutralization titers showed different protection efficacies against the three strains. By incorporating IgG and IgA signals of proteins and Spike protein derived peptide on microarray, panels as potential surrogate biomarkers for rapid estimation of neutralization titers were established. These data support the necessity of the 3rd dose of BBIBP-CorV vaccination. After further validation and assay development, the panels could be used for reliable, convenient and fast evaluation of the efficacy of vaccination.

Optimization of a peptide ligand for the adhesion GPCR ADGRG2 provides a potent tool to explore receptor biology.

The adhesion GPCR ADGRG2, also known as GPR64, is a critical regulator of male fertility that maintains ion/pH homeostasis and CFTR coupling. The molecular basis of ADGRG2 function is poorly understood, in part because no endogenous ligands for ADGRG2 have been reported, thus limiting the tools available to interrogate ADGRG2 activity. It has been shown that ADGRG2 can be activated by a peptide, termed p15, derived from its own N-terminal region known as the Stachel sequence. However, the low affinity of p15 limits its utility for ADGRG2 characterization. In the current study, we used alanine scanning mutagenesis to examine the critical residues responsible for p15-induced ADGRG2 activity. We next designed systematic strategies to optimize the peptide agonist of ADGRG2, using natural and unnatural amino acid substitutions. We obtained an optimized ADGRG2 Stachel peptide T1V/F3Phe(4-Me) (VPM-p15) that activated ADGRG2 with significantly improved (>2 orders of magnitude) affinity. We then characterized the residues in ADGRG2 that were important for ADGRG2 activation in response to VPM-p15 engagement, finding that the toggle switch W6.53 and residues of the ECL2 region of ADGRG2 are key determinants for VPM-p15 interactions and VPM-p15-induced Gs or arrestin signaling. Our study not only provides a useful tool to investigate the function of ADGRG2 but also offers new insights to guide further optimization of Stachel peptides to activate adhesion GPCR members.

Identification of Serum Biomarkers for Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Using a Library of Phage Displayed Random Peptides and Deep Sequencing.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is one of the most serious autoimmune diseases, characterized by highly diverse clinical manifestations. A biomarker is still needed for accurate diagnostics. SLE serum autoantibodies were discovered and validated using serum samples from independent sample cohorts encompassing 306 participants divided into three groups, i.e. healthy, SLE patients, and other autoimmune-related diseases. To discover biomarkers for SLE, a phage displayed random peptide library (Ph.D. 12) and deep sequencing were applied to screen specific autoantibodies in a total of 100 serum samples from 50 SLE patients and 50 healthy controls. A statistical analysis protocol was set up for the identification of peptides as potential biomarkers. For validation, 10 peptides were analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). As a result, four peptides (SLE2018Val001, SLE2018Val002, SLE2018Val006, and SLE2018Val008) were discovered with high diagnostic power to differentiate SLE patients from healthy controls. Among them, two peptides, i.e. SLE2018Val001 and SLE2018Val002, were confirmed between SLE with other autoimmune patients. The procedure we established could be easily adopted for the identification of autoantibodies as biomarkers for many other diseases.

Constitutive Gαi coupling activity of very large G protein-coupled receptor 1 (VLGR1) and its regulation by PDZD7 protein.

The very large G protein-coupled receptor 1 (VLGR1) is a core component in inner ear hair cell development. Mutations in the vlgr1 gene cause Usher syndrome, the symptoms of which include congenital hearing loss and progressive retinitis pigmentosa. However, the mechanism of VLGR1-regulated intracellular signaling and its role in Usher syndrome remain elusive. Here, we show that VLGR1 is processed into two fragments after autocleavage at the G protein-coupled receptor proteolytic site. The cleaved VLGR1 ß-subunit constitutively inhibited adenylate cyclase (AC) activity through Gαi coupling. Co-expression of the Gαiq chimera with the VLGR1 ß-subunit changed its activity to the phospholipase C/nuclear factor of activated T cells signaling pathway, which demonstrates the Gαi protein coupling specificity of this subunit. An R6002A mutation in intracellular loop 2 of VLGR1 abolished Gαi coupling, but the pathogenic VLGR1 Y6236fsx1 mutant showed increased AC inhibition. Furthermore, overexpression of another Usher syndrome protein, PDZD7, decreased the AC inhibition of the VLGR1 ß-subunit but showed no effect on the VLGR1 Y6236fsx1 mutant. Taken together, we identified an independent Gαi signaling pathway of the VLGR1 ß-subunit and its regulatory mechanisms that may have a role in the development of Usher syndrome.

Understanding cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type receptors.

The cadherin epidermal growth factor (EGF) laminin G (LAG) seven-pass G-type receptors (CELSRs) are a special subgroup of adhesion G protein-coupled receptors, which are pivotal regulators of many biologic processes such as neuronal/endocrine cell differentiation, vessel valve formation, and the control of planar cell polarity during embryonic development. All three members of the CELSR family (CELSR1-3) have large ecto-domains that form homophilic interactions and encompass more than 2000 amino acids. Mutations in the ecto-domain or other gene locations of CELSRs are associated with neural tube defects and other diseases in humans. Celsr knockout (KO) animals have many developmental defects. Therefore, specific agonists or antagonists of CELSR members may have therapeutic potential. Although significant progress has been made regarding the functions and biochemical properties of CELSRs, our knowledge of these receptors is still lacking, especially considering that they are broadly distributed but have few characterized functions in a limited number of tissues. The dynamic activation and inactivation of CELSRs and the presence of endogenous ligands beyond homophilic interactions remain elusive, as do the regulatory mechanisms and downstream signaling of these receptors. Given this motivation, future studies with more advanced cell biology or biochemical tools, such as conditional KO mice, may provide further insights into the mechanisms underlying CELSR function, laying the foundation for the design of new CELSR-targeted therapeutic reagents. The cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type receptors (CELSRs) are a special subgroup of adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which have large ecto-domains that form homophilic interactions and encompass more than 2000 amino acids. Recent studies have revealed that CELSRs are pivotal regulators of many biological processes, such as neuronal/endocrine cell differentiation, vessel valve formation and the control of planar cell polarity during embryonic development.

Design, synthesis and biological activity of flavonoid derivatives as selective agonists for neuromedin U 2 receptor.

Central neuromedin U 2 receptor (NMU2R) plays important roles in the regulation of food intake and body weight. Identification of NMU2R agonists may lead to the development of pharmaceutical agents to treat obesity. Based on the structure of rutin, a typical flavonoid and one of the NMU2R agonists we previously identified from an in-house made natural product library, 30 flavonoid derivatives have been synthesized and screened on a cell-based reporter gene assay. A number of compounds were found to be selective and highly potent to NMU2R. For example, the EC50 value of compound NRA 4 is very close to that of NMU, the endogenous peptide ligand of NMU2R. Structure-activity relationship analysis revealed that a 3-hydroxyl group in ring C and a 2'-fluoride group in ring B were essential for this class of compounds to be active against NMU2R.

A trigonal prismatic ligand in the metal-mediated self-assembly of one- and two-dimensional metallosupramolecular polymers.

A novel trispyrazine-pillared prismatic bicycooxacalixaromatic ligand L is synthesized, and its application in metal-mediated self-assembly is described. Under self-assembly conditions, single chain, double-stranded cross-linked coordination polymer and two-dimensional (2D) coordination polymeric networks were formed via M-L (Ag(+), Cu(2+), and Zn(2+)) coordinative interactions. Structural analyses revealed that the antiparallelly arranged one-dimensional coordination polymers (Cu(2+) and Zn(2+)) are arranged to generate well-defined voids to host aromatic guests (benzene) via C-H···π and π···π interactions, while the double-stranded cross-linked coordination polymer (Ag(+)) contains a rhomboidal [Ag2(L(3))2] (L(3): tridentate ligand) cage motif to include a benzene guest; the "thicker" (thickness: ac 5 Å) 2D coordination polymeric networks (Ag(+), Cu(2+), and Zn(2+)), however, are all formed by connection of one or two kinds of topologically different metallomacrocyclic cage units. These unique metallomacrocyclic cage units in the 2D coordination polymeric networks are capable of hosting different guest species. For instance, the rhomboidal [M2(L(3))2] (M = Ag(+), Cu(2+)) cage units were found to host a benzene or a nitrate anion; a hexahedral [M3(L(3))3] (M = Ag(+)) cage was found to host a ligand L or a DMF molecule; the hexahedral [M4(L(3))4] (M = Cu(2+)) cage was found to host four solvent molecules of benzene; and the rectangular [M3(L(3))3] (M = Cu(2+), Zn(2+)) cage units, however, were found to host two THF molecules. The results highlight the potential of ligand L for applications in the construction of "thicker" 2D coordination polymeric networks with well-defined metallomacrocyclic cage units capable of hosting various guest species.

Specific pupylation as IDEntity reporter (SPIDER) for the identification of protein-biomolecule interactions.

Protein-biomolecule interactions play pivotal roles in almost all biological processes. For a biomolecule of interest, the identification of the interacting protein(s) is essential. For this need, although many assays are available, highly robust and reliable methods are always desired. By combining a substrate-based proximity labeling activity from the pupylation pathway of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the streptavidin (SA)-biotin system, we developed the Specific Pupylation as IDEntity Reporter (SPIDER) method for identifying protein-biomolecule interactions. Using SPIDER, we validated the interactions between the known binding proteins of protein, DNA, RNA, and small molecule. We successfully applied SPIDER to construct the global protein interactome for m6A and mRNA, identified a variety of uncharacterized m6A binding proteins, and validated SRSF7 as a potential m6A reader. We globally identified the binding proteins for lenalidomide and CobB. Moreover, we identified SARS-CoV-2-specific receptors on the cell membrane. Overall, SPIDER is powerful and highly accessible for the study of protein-biomolecule interactions.

[Spatiotemporal Variation and Influencing Factors of AOD in the North China Plain].

A better knowledge of the spatial and temporal variation in atmospheric aerosol and its influencing factors is of great significance to controlling atmospheric pollution and improving the atmospheric environment. First, the visible infrared imaging radiometer suite (VIIRS) intermediate product (IP) aerosol optical depth (AOD) data from 2013 to 2019 were used to analyze the temporal and spatial variation in AOD in the North China Plain. Secondly, SO2, NO2, PM2.5, meteorological data, NDVI, DEM, GDP, and POPU were selected as influencing factors, and the linkage models between AOD and its influencing factors were established based on the XGBoost model for each of the five representative cities in the North China Plain to quantitatively estimate and reveal the contribution of various influencing factors behind the temporal and spatial distribution in AOD. The results showed that in terms of spatial distribution, the AOD of the North China Plain was bounded by the Taihang Mountains, showing a pattern of high AOD in the southeast and low AOD in the northwest. In terms of temporal changes, the annual average value of AOD in the five cities showed an overall decreasing trend, and the monthly average value of AOD first increased and then decreased, with the highest value appearing in July and the lowest value in December. In addition, the AOD estimation model established in this paper for the five cities in North China had high accuracy, with R2 ranging from 0.60 to 0.67. Among the factors influencing AOD in the North China Plain, NO2 and SO2 were the most influential factors contributing to AOD in the five cities. In addition, PM2.5 was another important pollutant emission factor. In terms of meteorological factors, temperature (T), relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS), and wind direction (WD) were the other four important influencing factors. There were both commonalities and differences in the rankings of the contribution and importance of AOD influencing factors in the five representative cities in North China.

The Clinical Efficacy of Minimally Invasive Clamp-Assisted Reduction and Open Reduction with Wire Cerclage for Unstable Subtrochanteric Fractures.

The purpose of this study was to compare the clinical effectiveness of minimally invasive clamp-assisted reduction and open reduction with wire cerclage and intramedullary nails for unstable subtrochanteric fractures. Between January 2016 and October 2019, 68 patients who had unstable subtrochanteric fractures experienced intramedullary nail surgery in this retrospective study. There were 41 cases in the minimally invasive clamp or closed reduction group (group A) and 27 cases in the open reduction with wire cerclage group (group B). There were 3 cases of complications in group A and 2 cases of complications in group B. Remarkable distinction was observed between the two groups in the operation time (p < 0.05), quality of reduction (p < 0.05), and union time (p < 0.05). For the successful surgical treatment of unstable femoral subtrochanteric fractures, an anatomical reduction is crucial. Reduction and wire cerclage are cut to give medial support for the anatomical reduction, which has a positive effect on fracture healing.

Facile Fabrication of Starch-Based Microrods by Shear-Assisted Antisolvent-Induced Nanoprecipitation and Solidification.

Rod-like particles have attracted increasing attention because of their unique shape-dependent properties, which enable their superior performance compared to their isotropic counterparts. Thus, rod-like particles have potential applications in many fields, especially in biomedicine. However, the fabrication of uniform rod-like particles is challenging because of the principle of interfacial energy minimization. Herein, we present a facile, rapid, and cost-effective strategy for preparing starch-based microrods with tunable aspect ratios via shear-assisted antisolvent-induced nanoprecipitation and solidification. The preformed spherical particles swollen by the mixed solvent were elongated by the shear force and solidified in rod-like shape by antisolvent induction. The resulting starch-based microrods can encapsulate hydrophobic active substances and be modified with functional groups, indicating their potential applications as drug carriers and biologically active materials. The formation mechanism of the starch-based microrods discovered in this study provides a new perspective on the fabrication of rod-like polymer particles.

Antibody landscape against SARS-CoV-2 reveals significant differences between non-structural/accessory and structural proteins.

The immunogenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 proteome is largely unknown, especially for non-structural proteins and accessory proteins. In this study, we collect 2,360 COVID-19 sera and 601 control sera. We analyze these sera on a protein microarray with 20 proteins of SARS-CoV-2, building an antibody response landscape for immunoglobulin (Ig)G and IgM. Non-structural proteins and accessory proteins NSP1, NSP7, NSP8, RdRp, ORF3b, and ORF9b elicit prevalent IgG responses. The IgG patterns and dynamics of non-structural/accessory proteins are different from those of the S and N proteins. The IgG responses against these six proteins are associated with disease severity and clinical outcome, and they decline sharply about 20 days after symptom onset. In non-survivors, a sharp decrease of IgG antibodies against S1 and N proteins before death is observed. The global antibody responses to non-structural/accessory proteins revealed here may facilitate a deeper understanding of SARS-CoV-2 immunology.

Systematic profiling of SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG responses elicited by an inactivated virus vaccine identifies peptides and proteins for predicting vaccination efficacy.

One of the best ways to control COVID-19 is vaccination. Among the various SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, inactivated virus vaccines have been widely applied in China and many other countries. To understand the underlying protective mechanism of these vaccines, it is necessary to systematically analyze the humoral responses that are triggered. By utilizing a SARS-CoV-2 microarray with 21 proteins and 197 peptides that fully cover the spike protein, antibody response profiles of 59 serum samples collected from 32 volunteers immunized with the inactivated virus vaccine BBIBP-CorV were generated. For this set of samples, the microarray results correlated with the neutralization titers of the authentic virus, and two peptides (S1-5 and S2-22) were identified as potential biomarkers for assessing the effectiveness of vaccination. Moreover, by comparing immunized volunteers to convalescent and hospitalized COVID-19 patients, the N protein, NSP7, and S2-78 were identified as potential biomarkers for differentiating COVID-19 patients from individuals vaccinated with the inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. The comprehensive profile of humoral responses against the inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine will facilitate a deeper understanding of the vaccine and provide potential biomarkers for inactivated virus vaccine-related applications.

COVID-ONE-hi: The One-stop Database for COVID-19-specific Humoral Immunity and Clinical Parameters.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by SARS-CoV-2, varies with regard to symptoms and mortality rates among populations. Humoral immunity plays critical roles in SARS-CoV-2 infection and recovery from COVID-19. However, differences in immune responses and clinical features among COVID-19 patients remain largely unknown. Here, we report a database for COVID-19-specific IgG/IgM immune responses and clinical parameters (named COVID-ONE-hi). COVID-ONE-hi is based on the data that contain the IgG/IgM responses to 24 full-length/truncated proteins corresponding to 20 of 28 known SARS-CoV-2 proteins and 199 spike protein peptides against 2360 serum samples collected from 783 COVID-19 patients. In addition, 96 clinical parameters for the 2360 serum samples and basic information for the 783 patients are integrated into the database. Furthermore, COVID-ONE-hi provides a dashboard for defining samples and a one-click analysis pipeline for a single group or paired groups. A set of samples of interest is easily defined by adjusting the scale bars of a variety of parameters. After the "START" button is clicked, one can readily obtain a comprehensive analysis report for further interpretation. COVID-ONE-hi is freely available at www.COVID-ONE.cn.

Linear epitope landscape of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein constructed from 1,051 COVID-19 patients.

To fully decipher the immunogenicity of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Spike protein, it is essential to assess which part is highly immunogenic in a systematic way. We generate a linear epitope landscape of the Spike protein by analyzing the serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) response of 1,051 coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients with a peptide microarray. We reveal two regions rich in linear epitopes, i.e., C-terminal domain (CTD) and a region close to the S2' cleavage site and fusion peptide. Unexpectedly, we find that the receptor binding domain (RBD) lacks linear epitope. We reveal that the number of responsive peptides is highly variable among patients and correlates with disease severity. Some peptides are moderately associated with severity and clinical outcome. By immunizing mice, we obtain linear-epitope-specific antibodies; however, no significant neutralizing activity against the authentic virus is observed for these antibodies. This landscape will facilitate our understanding of SARS-CoV-2-specific humoral responses and might be useful for vaccine refinement.

Systematic evaluation of IgG responses to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-derived peptides for monitoring COVID-19 patients.

Serological tests play an essential role in monitoring and combating the COVID-19 pandemic. Recombinant spike protein (S protein), especially the S1 protein, is one of the major reagents used for serological tests. However, the high cost of S protein production and possible cross-reactivity with other human coronaviruses pose unavoidable challenges. By taking advantage of a peptide microarray with full spike protein coverage, we analyzed 2,434 sera from 858 COVID-19 patients, 63 asymptomatic patients and 610 controls collected from multiple clinical centers. Based on the results, we identified several S protein-derived 12-mer peptides that have high diagnostic performance. In particular, for monitoring the IgG response, one peptide (aa 1148-1159 or S2-78) exhibited a sensitivity (95.5%, 95% CI 93.7-96.9%) and specificity (96.7%, 95% CI 94.8-98.0%) comparable to those of the S1 protein for the detection of both symptomatic and asymptomatic COVID-19 cases. Furthermore, the diagnostic performance of the S2-78 (aa 1148-1159) IgG was successfully validated by ELISA in an independent sample cohort. A panel of four peptides, S1-93 (aa 553-564), S1-97 (aa 577-588), S1-101 (aa 601-612) and S1-105 (aa 625-636), that likely will avoid potential cross-reactivity with sera from patients infected by other coronaviruses was constructed. The peptides identified in this study may be applied independently or in combination with the S1 protein for accurate, affordable, and accessible COVID-19 diagnosis.

Coordination-driven self-assembly of a discrete molecular cage and an infinite chain of coordination cages based on ortho-linked oxacalix[2]benzene[2]pyrazine and oxacalix[2]arene[2]pyrazine.

Coordination-driven self-assembly of ortho-linked oxacalix[2]benzene[2]pyrazine (1) as well as oxacalix[2]arene[2]pyrazine (2) with a silver cation resulted in the formation of a discrete molecular cage (3) and a one-dimensional chain of coordination cages (4), respectively. Single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the structures of 3 and 4. The silver ions in 3 adopted tetrahedral coordination geometries while the silver ions in 4 adopted square-planar coordination geometries. The void of the metal-containing cage 3 was occupied by a methyl group of an acetonitrile bonded to a neighboring cage in the solid state, and one benzene ring was found to reside in the void of each cage of complex 4.

Gq activity- and ß-arrestin-1 scaffolding-mediated ADGRG2/CFTR coupling are required for male fertility.

Luminal fluid reabsorption plays a fundamental role in male fertility. We demonstrated that the ubiquitous GPCR signaling proteins Gq and ß-arrestin-1 are essential for fluid reabsorption because they mediate coupling between an orphan receptor ADGRG2 (GPR64) and the ion channel CFTR. A reduction in protein level or deficiency of ADGRG2, Gq or ß-arrestin-1 in a mouse model led to an imbalance in pH homeostasis in the efferent ductules due to decreased constitutive CFTR currents. Efferent ductule dysfunction was rescued by the specific activation of another GPCR, AGTR2. Further mechanistic analysis revealed that ß-arrestin-1 acts as a scaffold for ADGRG2/CFTR complex formation in apical membranes, whereas specific residues of ADGRG2 confer coupling specificity for different G protein subtypes, this specificity is critical for male fertility. Therefore, manipulation of the signaling components of the ADGRG2-Gq/ß-arrestin-1/CFTR complex by small molecules may be an effective therapeutic strategy for male infertility.

Structure-based design and synthesis of imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine derivatives as novel and potent Nek2 inhibitors with in vitro and in vivo antitumor activities.

We present herein the discovery and development of novel and potent Nek2 inhibitors with distinctive in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity based on an imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine scaffold. Our studies identified a nonlinear SAR for activity against both Nek2 and cancer cells. Bioisostere and structure-based design techniques were employed to identify compounds 42c (MBM-17, IC50 = 3.0 nM) and 42g (MBM-55, IC50 = 1.0 nM), which displayed low nanomolar activity and excellent selectivity for Nek2. Both compounds effectively inhibited the proliferation of cancer cells by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Importantly, the salts form of these two compounds (MBM-17S and MBM-55S) significantly suppressed tumor growth in vivo without apparent toxicity based on appearance and changes in body weight. In summary, MBM-17 and MBM-55 displayed the potential for substantial therapeutic application in cancer treatment.

Adaptive Activation of a Stress Response Pathway Improves Learning and Memory Through Gs and ß-Arrestin-1-Regulated Lactate Metabolism.

BACKGROUND: Stress is a conserved physiological response in mammals. Whereas moderate stress strengthens memory to improve reactions to previously experienced difficult situations, too much stress is harmful. METHODS: We used specific ß-adrenergic agonists, as well as ß2-adrenergic receptor (ß2AR) and arrestin knockout models, to study the effects of adaptive ß2AR activation on cognitive function using Morris water maze and object recognition experiments. We used molecular and cell biological approaches to elucidate the signaling subnetworks. RESULTS: We observed that the duration of the adaptive ß2AR activation determines its consequences on learning and memory. Short-term formoterol treatment, for 3 to 5 days, improved cognitive function; however, prolonged ß2AR activation, for more than 6 days, produced harmful effects. We identified the activation of several signaling networks downstream of ß2AR, as well as an essential role for arrestin and lactate metabolism in promoting cognitive ability. Whereas Gs-protein kinase A-cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein signaling modulated monocarboxylate transporter 1 expression, ß-arrestin-1 controlled expression levels of monocarboxylate transporter 4 and lactate dehydrogenase A through the formation of a ß-arrestin-1/phospho-mitogen-activated protein kinase/hypoxia-inducible factor-1α ternary complex to upregulate lactate metabolism in astrocyte-derived U251 cells. Conversely, long-term treatment with formoterol led to the desensitization of ß2ARs, which was responsible for its decreased beneficial effects. CONCLUSIONS: Our results not only revealed that ß-arrestin-1 regulated lactate metabolism to contribute to ß2AR functions in improved memory formation, but also indicated that the appropriate management of one specific stress pathway, such as through the clinical drug formoterol, may exert beneficial effects on cognitive abilities.