Dysfunction of GABAergic neurons in the parafacial zone mediates sleep disturbances in a streptozotocin-induced rat model of sporadic Alzheimer's disease.

Sleep disturbances are prevalent among patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and often precede the onset and progression of dementia. However, there are no reliable animal models for investigating sleep disturbances in patients with sporadic AD (sAD), which accounts for more than 90% of all AD cases. In the present study, we characterize the sleep/wake cycles and explore a potential mechanism underlying sleep disturbance in a rat model of sAD induced via intracerebroventricular (icv) injection of streptozotocin (STZ). STZ-icv rats exhibited progressive decreases in slow wave sleep (SWS) during the light phase and throughout the light/dark cycle beginning from 7 days after STZ-icv. Additionally, increased wakefulness and decreased rapid-eye-movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep were observed from 14 days after STZ-icv. Beginning on day 7, STZ-icv rats exhibited significant decreases in delta (0.5-4.0 Hz) power accompanied by increased power in the beta (12-30 Hz) and low gamma bands (30-50 Hz) during NREM sleep, resembling deficits in sleep quality observed in patients with AD. Immunohistochemical staining revealed a significant reduction in the ratio of c-Fos-positive GABAergic neurons in the parafacial zone (PZ) beginning from day 7 after STZ-icv. These results suggest that the STZ-icv rat model is useful for evaluating sleep disturbances associated with AD, and implicate the dysregulation of GABAergic neuronal activity in the PZ is associated with sleep disturbance induced by STZ.

Dorsal CA3 overactivation mediates witnessing stress-induced recognition memory deficits in adolescent male mice.

Witnessing violent or traumatic events is common during childhood and adolescence and could cause detrimental effects such as increased risks of psychiatric disorders. This stressor could be modeled in adolescent laboratory animals using the chronic witnessing social defeat (CWSD) paradigm, but the behavioral consequences of CWSD in adolescent animals remain to be validated for cognitive, anxiety-like, and depression-like behaviors and, more importantly, the underlying neural mechanisms remain to be uncovered. In this study, we first established the CWSD model in adolescent male mice and found that CWSD impaired cognitive function and increased anxiety levels and that these behavioral deficits persisted into adulthood. Based on the dorsal-ventral functional division in hippocampus, we employed immediate early gene c-fos immunostaining after behavioral tasks and found that CWSD-induced cognition deficits were associated with dorsal CA3 overactivation and anxiety-like behaviors were associated with ventral CA3 activity reduction. Indeed, chemogenetic activation and inhibition of dorsal CA3 neurons mimicked and reversed CWSD-induced recognition memory deficits (not anxiety-like behaviors), respectively, whereas both inhibition and activation of ventral CA3 neurons increased anxiety-like behaviors in adolescent mice. Finally, chronic administration of vortioxetine (a novel multimodal antidepressant) successfully restored the overactivation of dorsal CA3 neurons and the cognitive deficits in CWSD mice. Together, our findings suggest that dorsal CA3 overactivation mediates CWSD-induced recognition memory deficits in adolescent male mice, shedding light on the pathophysiology of adolescent CWSD-induced adverse effects and providing preclinical evidence for early treatment of stress-induced cognitive deficits.

Fluoxetine reverses early-life stress-induced depressive-like behaviors and region-specific alterations of monoamine transporters in female mice.

The sex difference that females are more vulnerable to depression than males has been recently replicated in an animal model of early-life stress (ES) called the limited bedding and nesting material (LBN) paradigm. Adopting this animal model, we have previously examined the effects of ES on monoamine transporter (MATs) expression in stress-related regions in adult female mice, and the reversal effects of a novel multimodal antidepressant, vortioxetine. In this study, replacing vortioxetine with a classical antidepressant, fluoxetine, we aimed to replicate the ES effects in adult female mice and to elucidate the commonality and differences between fluoxetine and vortioxetine. We found that systemic 30-day treatment with fluoxetine successfully reversed ES-induced depression-like behaviors (especially sucrose preference) in adult female mice. At the molecular level, we largely replicated the ES effects, such as reduced serotonin transporter (SERT) expression in the amygdala and increased norepinephrine transporter (NET) expression in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampus. Similar reversal effects of fluoxetine and vortioxetine were observed, including SERT in the amygdala and NET in the mPFC, whereas different reversal effects were observed for NET in the hippocampus and vesicular monoamine transporters expression in the nucleus accumbens. Overall, these results demonstrate the validity of the LBN paradigm to induce depression-like behaviors in female mice, highlight the involvement of region-specific MATs in ES-induced depression-like behaviors, and provide insights for further investigation of neurobiological mechanisms, treatment, and prevention associated with depression in women.

Dorsal CA1 NECTIN3 Reduction Mediates Early-Life Stress-Induced Object Recognition Memory Deficits in Adolescent Female Mice.

Early-life stress (ES) leads to cognitive dysfunction in female adolescents, but the underlying neural mechanisms remain elusive. Recent evidence suggests that the cell adhesion molecules NECTIN1 and NECTIN3 play a role in cognition and ES-related cognitive deficits in male rodents. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether and how nectins contribute to ES-induced cognitive dysfunction in female adolescents. Applying the well-established limited bedding and nesting material paradigm, we found that ES impairs recognition memory, suppresses prefrontal NECTIN1 and hippocampal NECTIN3 expression, and upregulates corticotropin-releasing hormone (Crh) and its receptor 1 (Crhr1) mRNA levels in the hippocampus of adolescent female mice. Genetic experiments revealed that the reduction of dorsal CA1 (dCA1) NECTIN3 mediates ES-induced object recognition memory deficits, as knocking down dCA1 NECTIN3 impaired animals' performance in the novel object recognition task, while overexpression of dCA1 NECTIN3 successfully reversed the ES-induced deficits. Notably, prefrontal NECTIN1 knockdown did not result in significant cognitive impairments. Furthermore, acute systemic administration of antalarmin, a CRHR1 antagonist, upregulated hippocampal NECTIN3 levels and rescued object and spatial memory deficits in stressed mice. Our findings underscore the critical role of dCA1 NECTIN3 in mediating ES-induced object recognition memory deficits in adolescent female mice, highlighting it as a potential therapeutic target for stress-related psychiatric disorders in women.

The Nucleus Accumbens CRH-CRHR1 System Mediates Early-Life Stress-Induced Sleep Disturbance and Dendritic Atrophy in the Adult Mouse.

Adverse experiences in early life have long-lasting negative impacts on behavior and the brain in adulthood, one of which is sleep disturbance. As the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)-corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) system and nucleus accumbens (NAc) play important roles in both stress responses and sleep-wake regulation, in this study we investigated whether the NAc CRH-CRHR1 system mediates early-life stress-induced abnormalities in sleep-wake behavior in adult mice. Using the limited nesting and bedding material paradigm from postnatal days 2 to 9, we found that early-life stress disrupted sleep-wake behaviors during adulthood, including increased wakefulness and decreased non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep time during the dark period and increased rapid eye movement (REM) sleep time during the light period. The stress-induced sleep disturbances were accompanied by dendritic atrophy in the NAc and both were largely reversed by daily systemic administration of the CRHR1 antagonist antalarmin during stress exposure. Importantly, Crh overexpression in the NAc reproduced the effects of early-life stress on sleep-wake behavior and NAc morphology, whereas NAc Crhr1 knockdown reversed these effects (including increased wakefulness and reduced NREM sleep in the dark period and NAc dendritic atrophy). Together, our findings demonstrate the negative influence of early-life stress on sleep architecture and the structural plasticity of the NAc, and highlight the critical role of the NAc CRH-CRHR1 system in modulating these negative outcomes evoked by early-life stress.

The causal involvement of the BDNF-TrkB pathway in dentate gyrus in early-life stress-induced cognitive deficits in male mice.

Cognitive dysfunction is a significant, untreated clinical need in patients with psychiatric disorders, for which preclinical studies are needed to understand the underlying mechanisms and to identify potential therapeutic targets. Early-life stress (ELS) leads to long-lasting deficits of hippocampus-dependent learning and memory in adult mice, which may be associated with the hypofunction of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its high-affinity receptor, tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB). In this study, we carried out eight experiments using male mice to examine the causal involvement of the BDNF-TrkB pathway in dentate gyrus (DG) and the therapeutic effects of the TrkB agonist (7,8-DHF) in ELS-induced cognitive deficits. Adopting the limited nesting and bedding material paradigm, we first demonstrated that ELS impaired spatial memory, suppressed BDNF expression and neurogenesis in the DG in adult mice. Downregulating BDNF expression (conditional BDNF knockdown) or inhibition of the TrkB receptor (using its antagonist ANA-12) in the DG mimicked the cognitive deficits of ELS. Acute upregulation of BDNF (exogenous human recombinant BDNF microinjection) levels or activation of TrkB receptor (using its agonist, 7,8-DHF) in the DG restored ELS-induced spatial memory loss. Finally, acute and subchronic systemic administration of 7,8-DHF successfully restored spatial memory loss in stressed mice. Subchronic 7,8-DHF treatment also reversed ELS-induced neurogenesis reduction. Our findings highlight BDNF-TrkB system as the molecular target of ELS-induced spatial memory deficits and provide translational evidence for the intervention at this system in the treatment of cognitive deficits in stress-related psychiatric disorders, such as major depressive disorder.

Vortioxetine attenuates the effects of early-life stress on depression-like behaviors and monoamine transporters in female mice.

Major depressive disorder is a major psychiatric disorder and a leading cause of disability around the world. Females have about twice as high an incidence of depression as males. However, preclinical animal models of depression have seldom investigated the molecular alterations associated with higher depression risk in females. In this study, adopting the early-life stress (ELS) paradigm of limited bedding and nesting material, we found that ELS induced depression-like behaviors only in adult female mice, as evaluated by sucrose preference and tail suspension tests. We then examined the ELS effects on monoamine neurotransmission (transporters for monoamine reuptake and release) in depression-related brain regions in female mice. We found that ELS resulted in widespread changes of the expression levels of these transporters in four brain regions. Moreover, systemic 21-day treatment with vortioxetine, a novel multimodal antidepressant, successfully reversed depression-like behaviors and normalized some molecular changes, including that of the norepinephrine transporter in the medial prefrontal cortex, vesicular monoamine transporter 2 in nucleus accumbens core, and serotonin transporter in amygdala. Collectively, these results provide evidence for the validity of using the limited bedding and nesting material paradigm to investigate sex differences in depression and demonstrate that the region-specific alterations of monoamine neurotransmission may be associated with depression-like behaviors in female mice. This article is part of the special issue on 'Stress, Addiction and Plasticity'.

Subchronic MK-801 treatment during adolescence induces long-term, not permanent, excitatory-inhibitory imbalance in the rat hippocampus.

Adolescence is a critical neurodevelopmental period for both excitatory and inhibitory (E/I) neurotransmission and often witnesses the typical onsets of schizophrenia. One possibility is that disruptions in adolescent neurodevelopmental processes may produce schizophrenia-like behavioral and neurobiological abnormalities. We previously reported that subchronic treatment of adolescent animals with the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist MK-801 induced cognitive deficits and reduced interneuron densities in rat medial prefrontal cortex, and these changes persisted one week after MK-801 exposure. However, it remains unclear how this treatment may affect E/I balance in hippocampus, which has long been associated with the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Here, we examined hippocampal E/I biomarkers in adolescent rats treated with MK-801 (0.2 mg/kg, i.p., 14 days) and found increases in the ratio of the expression levels of vesicular glutamate transporter-1 (VGluT1) and vesicular gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transporter (VGAT) 24 h and 7 days after MK-801 exposure. Interestingly, the increased VGluT1/VGAT ratio at the two time points was driven by upregulated VGluT1 expression and downregulated VGAT expression, respectively. The decrease in VGAT expression persisted 14 days after MK-801 exposure and recovered two weeks later. No alterations in hippocampal interneuron densities were observed. Behaviorally, the treatment decreased prepulse inhibition at 24 h but not 14 days, after MK-801 exposure. Taken together, these results demonstrate that subchronic NMDA receptor blockade during adolescence induces long-term, but not permanent, E/I imbalance in the rat hippocampus, which could be attributed to the dysregulation of glutamatergic transmission in the short term and of GABAergic transmission in the long term.

Adolescent stress increases depression-like behaviors and alters the excitatory-inhibitory balance in aged mice.

BACKGROUND: Depression affects approximately 5% of elderly people and its etiology might be related to chronic stress exposure during neurodevelopmental periods. In this study, we examined the effects of adolescent chronic social stress in aged mice on depressive behaviors and the excitatory-inhibitory (E/I) balance in stress-sensitive regions of the brain. METHODS: Sixty-four adolescent, male C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned to either the 7-week (from post-natal days 29 to 77) social instability stress (stress group, n = 32) or normal housing conditions (control group, n = 32). At 15 months of age, 16 mice were randomly selected from each group for a series of behavioral tests, including two depression-related tasks (the sucrose preference test and the tail suspension test). Three days following the last behavioral test, eight mice were randomly selected from each group for immunohistochemical analyses to measure the cell density of parvalbumin (PV)- and calretinin (CR)-positive gamma-aminobutyric-acid (GABA)ergic inhibitory inter-neurons, and the expression levels of vesicular transporters of glutamate-1 (VGluT1) and vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT) in three stress-sensitive regions of the brain (the medial pre-frontal cortex [mPFC], hippocampus, and amygdala). RESULTS: Behaviorally, compared with the control group, adolescent chronic stress increased depression-like behaviors as shown in decreased sucrose preference (54.96 ±â€Š1.97% vs. 43.11 ±â€Š2.85%, t(22) = 3.417, P = 0.003) and reduced latency to immobility in the tail suspension test (92.77 ±â€Š25.08 s vs. 33.14 ±â€Š5.95 s, t(25) = 2.394, P = 0.025), but did not affect anxiety-like behaviors and pre-pulse inhibition. At the neurobiologic level, adolescent stress down-regulated PV, not CR, inter-neuron density in the mPFC (F(1, 39) = 19.30, P < 0.001), and hippocampus (F(1, 42) = 5.823, P = 0.020) and altered the CR, not PV, inter-neuron density in the amygdala (F(1, 28) = 23.16, P < 0.001). The VGluT1/VGAT ratio was decreased in all three regions (all F > 10.09, all P < 0.004), which suggests stress-induced hypoexcitability in these regions. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic stress during adolescence increased depression-like behaviors in aged mice, which may be associated with the E/I imbalance in stress-sensitive brain regions.

Intracerebroventricular streptozotocin-induced Alzheimer's disease-like sleep disorders in rats: Role of the GABAergic system in the parabrachial complex.

AIM: Sleep disorders are common in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and assumed to directly influence cognitive function and disease progression. This study evaluated sleep characteristics in a rat model of AD that was induced by intracerebroventricular streptozotocin (STZ) administration and assessed the possible underlying mechanisms. METHODS: Cognition ability was assessed in the Morris water maze in rats. Sleep parameters were analyzed by electroencephalographic and electromyographic recordings. Neuronal activity in brain areas that regulate sleep-wake states was evaluated by double-staining immunohistochemistry. High-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection was used to detect neurotransmitter levels. RESULTS: Fourteen days after the STZ injection, the rats exhibited sleep disorders that were similar to those in AD patients, reflected by a significant increase in wakefulness and decreases in nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. The c-Fos expression analysis indicated that neuronal activity and the number of neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus and locus coeruleus decreased in STZ-injected rats. In the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO), the activity of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurons was suppressed. In the arousal-driving parabrachial nucleus (PBN), GABAergic activity was suppressed, whereas glutamatergic activity was promoted. The neurotransmitter analysis revealed a reduction in GABA in the VLPO and PBN and elevation of glutamate in the PBN. A direct injection of the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline in the PBN in normal rats induced a similar pattern of sleep disorder as in STZ-injected rats. A microinjection of GABA in the PBN improved sleep disorders that were induced by STZ. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the reduction in GABAergic inhibition in the PBN and VLPO may be involved in sleep disorders that are induced by STZ. Our novel findings encourage further studies that investigate mechanisms of sleep regulation in sporadic AD.