Unloading results in rapid loss of TGFß signaling in articular cartilage: role of loading-induced TGFß signaling in maintenance of articular chondrocyte phenotype?

OBJECTIVE: Recently it was shown that loading of articular cartilage explants activates TGFß signaling. Here we investigated if in vivo chondrocytes express permanently high TGFß signaling, and the consequence of the loss of compressive loading-mediated TGFß signaling on chondrocyte function and phenotype. METHOD: Bovine articular cartilage explants were collected within 10 min post mortem and stained immediately and after 30, 60 and 360 min for phosphorylated-Smad2, indicating active TGFß signaling. Explants were unloaded for 48 h and subsequently repeatedly loaded with a compressive load of 3 MPa. In addition, explants were cultured unloaded for 2 weeks and the effect of loading or exogenous TGFß on proteoglycan level and chondrocyte phenotype (Col10a1 mRNA expression) was analyzed. RESULTS: Unloading of articular cartilage results in rapid loss of TGFß signaling while subsequent compressive loading swiftly restored this. Loading and exogenous TGFß enhanced expression of TGFß1 and ALK5. Unloading of explants for 2 weeks resulted in proteoglycan loss and increased Col10a1 expression. Both loading and exogenous TGFß inhibited elevated Col10a1 expression but not proteoglycan loss. CONCLUSION: Our data might imply that in vivo regular physiological loading of articular cartilage leads to enduring TGFß signaling and TGFß-induced gene expression. We propose a hypothetical model in which loading activates a self-perpetuating system that prevents hypertrophic differentiation of chondrocytes and is crucial for cartilage homeostasis.

Ageing is associated with reduction of mechanically-induced activation of Smad2/3P signaling in articular cartilage.

OBJECTIVE: Mechanical signals control key cellular processes in articular cartilage. Previously we have shown that mechanical compression is an important ALK5/Smad2/3P activator in cartilage explants. However, age-related changes in the cartilage are known to affect tissue mechanosensitivity and also ALK5/Smad2/3P signaling. We have investigated whether ageing of cartilage is associated with an altered response to mechanical compression. DESIGN: Articular cartilage explants of two different age groups (young-6-36 months old, aged-6 - 13 years old) were subjected to dynamic mechanical compression with 3 MPa (physiological) or 12 MPa (excessive) load. Subsequently, essential cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) components and tissue growth factors gene expression was measured in young and aged cartilage by QPCR. Furthermore, the ability of young and aged cartilage, to activate the Smad2/3P signaling in response to compression was analyzed and compared. This was done by immunohistochemical (IH) Smad2P detection and Smad3-responsive gene expression analysis. RESULTS: Aged cartilage showed a highly reduced capacity for mechanically-mediated activation of Smad2/3P signaling when compared to young cartilage. Compression of aged cartilage, induced collagen type II (Col2a1) and fibronectin (Fn1) expression to a far lesser extent than in young cartilage. Additionally, in aged cartilage no mechanically mediated up-regulation of bone morphogenetic protein 2 (Bmp2) and connective tissue growth factor (Ctgf) was observed. CONCLUSIONS: We identified age-related changes in cellular responses to mechanical stimulation of articular cartilage. We propose that these changes might be associated with age-related alterations in cartilage functioning and can underlie mechanisms for development of age-related cartilage diseases like osteoarthritis (OA).

Expression of TGFß-family signalling components in ageing cartilage: age-related loss of TGFß and BMP receptors.

OBJECTIVE: Ageing is the main risk factor for osteoarthritis (OA). We investigated if expression of transforming growth factor ß (TGFß)-family components, a family which is crucial for the maintenance of healthy articular cartilage, is altered during ageing in cartilage. Moreover, we investigated the functional significance of selected age-related changes. DESIGN: Age-related changes in expression of TGFß-family members were analysed by quantitative PCR in healthy articular cartilage obtained from 42 cows (age: ¾-10 years). To obtain functional insight of selected changes, cartilage explants were stimulated with TGFß1 or bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) 9, and TGFß1 and BMP response genes were measured. RESULTS: Age-related cartilage thinning and loss of collagen type 2a1 expression (∼256-fold) was observed, validating our data set for studying ageing in cartilage. Expression of the TGFß-family type I receptors; bAlk2, bAlk3, bAlk4 and bAlk5 dropped significantly with advancing age, whereas bAlk1 expression did not. Of the type II receptors, expression of bBmpr2 decreased significantly. Type III receptor expression was unaffected by ageing. Expression of the ligands bTgfb1 and bGdf5 also decreased with age. In explants, an age-related decrease in TGFß1-response was observed for the pSmad3-dependent gene bSerpine1 (P = 0.016). In contrast, ageing did not affect BMP9 signalling, an Alk1 ligand, as measured by expression of the pSmad1/5 dependent gene bId1. CONCLUSIONS: Ageing negatively affects both the TGFß-ALK5 and BMP-BMPR signalling routes, and aged chondrocytes display a lowered pSmad3-dependent response to TGFß1. Because pSmad3 signalling is essential for cartilage homeostasis, we propose that this change contributes to OA development.

Physiological and excessive mechanical compression of articular cartilage activates Smad2/3P signaling.

OBJECTIVE: Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) in articular cartilage can signal via two routes, the ALK5/Smad2/3P and the ALK1/Smad1/5/8P route, the first being protective and the latter favoring chondrocyte terminal differentiation. Since biomechanical factors are known to play an essential role in osteoarthritis (OA) initiation and progression, we investigated if excessive mechanical compression can alter TGF-ß signaling in cartilage shifting it from ALK5/Smad2/3P to ALK1/Smad1/5/8P pathway, favoring terminal differentiation of chondrocytes. DESIGN: Articular cartilage explants were harvested from bovine metacarpophalangeal joints. After equilibration, explants were subjected to unconfined dynamic mechanical compression (1 Hz) with 3 MPa (physiological) or 12 MPa (excessive) stress. After different time intervals samples were frozen and mRNA levels of selected genes were examined using real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: In articular cartilage compressed with 3 MPa and also 12 MPa stress the expression of Smad2/3P responsive genes bSerpine1, bSmad7 and bAlk5 was up-regulated, whereas the expression of Smad1/5/8P responsive gene bId1 was down-regulated. Furthermore, the expression of bTgfb1 was significantly up-regulated in both compression groups. When ALK5/Smad2/3P pathway was blocked with a selective ALK4/5/7 inhibitor, the effect of excessive mechanical compression on bSmad7 and bAlk5 expression was prevented. CONCLUSIONS: Here we show that excessive mechanical compression alone is not able to shift TGF-ß signaling toward the ALK1/Smad1/5/8P pathway. In contrast, we show that mechanical compression not only with physiological but also with excessive stress can activate Smad2/3P signaling, which is known to be protective for articular cartilage and to block chondrocyte terminal differentiation.

Short Term Evaluation of an Anatomically Shaped Polycarbonate Urethane Total Meniscus Replacement in a Goat Model.

PURPOSE: Since the treatment options for symptomatic total meniscectomy patients are still limited, an anatomically shaped, polycarbonate urethane (PCU), total meniscus replacement was developed. This study evaluates the in vivo performance of the implant in a goat model, with a specific focus on the implant location in the joint, geometrical integrity of the implant and the effect of the implant on synovial membrane and articular cartilage histopathological condition. METHODS: The right medial meniscus of seven Saanen goats was replaced by the implant. Sham surgery (transection of the MCL, arthrotomy and MCL suturing) was performed in six animals. The contralateral knee joints of both groups served as control groups. After three months follow-up the following aspects of implant performance were evaluated: implant position, implant deformation and the histopathological condition of the synovium and cartilage. RESULTS: Implant geometry was well maintained during the three month implantation period. No signs of PCU wear were found and the implant did not induce an inflammatory response in the knee joint. In all animals, implant fixation was compromised due to suture breakage, wear or elongation, likely causing the increase in extrusion observed in the implant group. Both the femoral cartilage and tibial cartilage in direct contact with the implant showed increased damage compared to the sham and sham-control groups. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that the novel, anatomically shaped PCU total meniscal replacement is biocompatible and resistant to three months of physiological loading. Failure of the fixation sutures may have increased implant mobility, which probably induced implant extrusion and potentially stimulated cartilage degeneration. Evidently, redesigning the fixation method is necessary. Future animal studies should evaluate the improved fixation method and compare implant performance to current treatment standards, such as allografts.