Recruitment of beneficial M2 macrophages to injured spinal cord is orchestrated by remote brain choroid plexus.

Monocyte-derived macrophages are essential for recovery after spinal cord injury, but their homing mechanism is poorly understood. Here, we show that although of common origin, the homing of proinflammatory (M1) and the "alternatively activated" anti-inflammatory (M2) macrophages to traumatized spinal cord (SC) was distinctly regulated, neither being through breached blood-brain barrier. The M1 macrophages (Ly6c(hi)CX3CR1(lo)) derived from monocytes homed in a CCL2 chemokine-dependent manner through the adjacent SC leptomeninges. The resolving M2 macrophages (Ly6c(lo)CX3CR1(hi)) derived from monocytes trafficked through a remote blood-cerebrospinal-fluid (CSF) barrier, the brain-ventricular choroid plexus (CP), via VCAM-1-VLA-4 adhesion molecules and epithelial CD73 enzyme for extravasation and epithelial transmigration. Blockage of these determinants, or mechanical CSF flow obstruction, inhibited M2 macrophage recruitment and impaired motor-function recovery. The CP, along with the CSF and the central canal, provided an anti-inflammatory supporting milieu, potentially priming the trafficking monocytes. Overall, our finding demonstrates that the route of monocyte entry to central nervous system provides an instructional environment to shape their function.

Posttranscriptional silencing of effector cytokine mRNA underlies the anergic phenotype of self-reactive T cells.

Self-reactive T cell clones that escape negative selection are either deleted or rendered functionally unresponsive (anergic), thus preventing them from propagating host tissue damage. By using an in vivo model, we investigated molecular mechanisms for T cell tolerance, finding that despite a characteristic inability to generate effector cytokine proteins, self-reactive T cells express large amounts of cytokine mRNAs. This disconnect between cytokine message and protein was not observed in T cells mounting productive responses to foreign antigens but, instead, was seen only in those responding to self, where the block in protein translation was shown to involve conserved AU-rich elements within cytokine 3'UTRs. These studies reveal that translation of abundant cytokine mRNAs is limited in self-reactive T cells and, thus, identify posttranscriptional silencing of antigen-driven gene expression as a key mechanism underlying the anergic phenotype of self-reactive T cells.

Immunization with a Myelin-Derived Antigen Activates the Brain's Choroid Plexus for Recruitment of Immunoregulatory Cells to the CNS and Attenuates Disease Progression in a Mouse Model of ALS.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating fatal motor neuron disease, for which there is currently no cure or effective treatment. In this disease, local neuroinflammation develops along the disease course and contributes to its rapid progression. In several models of CNS pathologies, circulating immune cells were shown to display an indispensable role in the resolution of the neuroinflammatory response. The recruitment of such cells to the CNS involves activation of the choroid plexus (CP) of the brain for leukocyte trafficking, through a mechanism that requires IFN-γ signaling. Here, we found that in the mutant SOD1(G93A) (mSOD1) mouse model of ALS, the CP does not support leukocyte trafficking during disease progression, due to a local reduction in IFN-γ levels. Therapeutic immunization of mSOD1 mice with a myelin-derived peptide led to CP activation, and was followed by the accumulation of immunoregulatory cells, including IL-10-producing monocyte-derived macrophages and Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells, and elevation of the neurotrophic factors IGF-1 and GDNF in the diseased spinal cord parenchyma. The immunization resulted in the attenuation of disease progression and an increased life expectancy of the mSOD1 mice. Collectively, our results demonstrate that recruitment of immunoregulatory cells to the diseased spinal cord in ALS, needed for fighting off the pathology, can be enhanced by transiently boosting peripheral immunity to myelin antigens.

IFN-γ-dependent activation of the brain's choroid plexus for CNS immune surveillance and repair.

Infiltrating T cells and monocyte-derived macrophages support central nervous system repair. Although infiltration of leucocytes to the injured central nervous system has recently been shown to be orchestrated by the brain's choroid plexus, the immunological mechanism that maintains this barrier and regulates its activity as a selective gate is poorly understood. Here, we hypothesized that CD4(+) effector memory T cells, recently shown to reside at the choroid plexus stroma, regulate leucocyte trafficking through this portal through their interactions with the choroid plexus epithelium. We found that the naïve choroid plexus is populated by T helper 1, T helper 2 and regulatory T cells, but not by encephalitogenic T cells. In vitro findings revealed that the expression of immune cell trafficking determinants by the choroid plexus epithelium is specifically induced by interferon-γ. Tumour necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ reciprocally controlled the expression of their receptors by the choroid plexus epithelium, and had a synergistic effect in inducing the epithelial expression of trafficking molecules. In vivo, interferon-γ-dependent signalling controlled trafficking through the choroid plexus; interferon-γ receptor knockout mice exhibited reduced levels of T cells and monocyte entry to the cerebrospinal fluid and impaired recovery following spinal cord injury. Moreover, reduced expression of trafficking molecules by the choroid plexus was correlated with reduced CD4(+) T cells in the choroid plexus and cerebrospinal fluid of interferon-γ receptor knockout mice. Similar effect on the expression of trafficking molecules by the choroid plexus was found in bone-marrow chimeric mice lacking interferon-γ receptor in the central nervous system, or reciprocally, lacking interferon-γ in the circulation. Collectively, our findings attribute a novel immunological plasticity to the choroid plexus epithelium, allowing it to serve, through interferon-γ signalling, as a tightly regulated entry gate into the central nervous system for circulating leucocytes immune surveillance under physiological conditions, and for repair following acute injury.

IL-27R deficiency delays the onset of colitis and protects from helminth-induced pathology in a model of chronic IBD.

Members of the IL-6/IL-12 cytokine family play central roles in Crohn's disease. The present findings demonstrate that IL-27, a close relative of IL-12 and IL-23, can promote the onset of colitis in mice. We report that, compared with IL-10-deficient animals, which succumb to chronic intestinal disease at 3-6 months of age, mice lacking both IL-10 and the IL-27R (IL-27R/WSX-1) exhibit delayed pathology and prolonged survival (>1 year). Moreover, unlike highly susceptible IL-10-deficient counterparts, they were able to clear infection with Trichuris muris, a colon-dwelling nematode. In both models of intestinal inflammation, improved clinical outcome was associated with reduced inflammation and profound attenuation of T(h)1 responses and, consistent with these in vivo findings, we confirmed that during in vitro differentiation, IL-27 directly promotes CD4(+) T cell IFN-gamma production through effects on Tbet, a key T(h)1 transcription factor. We also found that its ability to suppress T(h)2 responses, which was clearly evident in helminth-infected IL-10-/-IL-27R-/- mice, was largely Tbet independent. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that, in the absence of IL-10, IL-27 can promote T(h)1-type and suppress T(h)2-type intestinal inflammation but, ultimately, is not required for the development of inflammatory bowel disease.

Aging. Aging-induced type I interferon response at the choroid plexus negatively affects brain function.

Aging-associated cognitive decline is affected by factors produced inside and outside the brain. By using multiorgan genome-wide analysis of aged mice, we found that the choroid plexus, an interface between the brain and the circulation, shows a type I interferon (IFN-I)-dependent gene expression profile that was also found in aged human brains. In aged mice, this response was induced by brain-derived signals, present in the cerebrospinal fluid. Blocking IFN-I signaling within the aged brain partially restored cognitive function and hippocampal neurogenesis and reestablished IFN-II-dependent choroid plexus activity, which is lost in aging. Our data identify a chronic aging-induced IFN-I signature, often associated with antiviral response, at the brain's choroid plexus and demonstrate its negative influence on brain function, thereby suggesting a target for ameliorating cognitive decline in aging.

Excess circulating alternatively activated myeloid (M2) cells accelerate ALS progression while inhibiting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

BACKGROUND: Circulating immune cells including autoreactive T cells and monocytes have been documented as key players in maintaining, protecting and repairing the central nervous system (CNS) in health and disease. Here, we hypothesized that neurodegenerative diseases might be associated, similarly to tumors, with increased levels of circulating peripheral myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), representing a subset of suppressor cells that often expand under pathological conditions and inhibit possible recruitment of helper T cells needed for fighting off the disease. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We tested this working hypothesis in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and its mouse model, which are characterized by a rapid progression once clinical symptoms are evident. Adaptive transfer of alternatively activated myeloid (M2) cells, which homed to the spleen and exhibited immune suppressive activity in G93A mutant superoxide dismutase-1 (mSOD1) mice at a stage before emergence of disease symptoms, resulted in earlier appearance of disease symptoms and shorter life expectancy. The same protocol mitigated the inflammation-induced disease model of multiple sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), which requires circulating T cells for disease induction. Analysis of whole peripheral blood samples obtained from 28 patients suffering from sporadic ALS (sALS), revealed a two-fold increase in the percentage of circulating MDSCs (LIN(-/Low)HLA-DR(-)CD33(+)) compared to controls. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results emphasize the distinct requirements for fighting the inflammatory neurodegenerative disease, multiple sclerosis, and the neurodegenerative disease, ALS, though both share a local inflammatory component. Moreover, the increased levels of circulating MDSCs in ALS patients indicates the operation of systemic mechanisms that might lead to an impairment of T cell reactivity needed to overcome the disease conditions within the CNS. This high level of suppressive immune cells might represent a risk factor and a novel target for therapeutic intervention in ALS at least at the early stage.