Protein-based immune profiles of basal-like vs. luminal breast cancers.

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes play an important, but incompletely understood role in chemotherapy response and prognosis. In breast cancer, there appear to be distinct immune responses by subtype, but most studies have used limited numbers of protein markers or bulk sequencing of RNA to characterize immune response, in which spatial organization cannot be assessed. To identify immune phenotypes of Basal-like vs. Luminal breast cancer we used the GeoMx® (NanoString) platform to perform digital spatial profiling of immune-related proteins in tumor whole sections and tissue microarrays (TMA). Visualization of CD45, CD68, or pan-Cytokeratin by immunofluorescence was used to select regions of interest in formalin-fixed paraffin embedded tissue sections. Forty-four antibodies representing stromal markers and multiple immune cell types were applied to quantify the tumor microenvironment. In whole tumor slides, immune hot spots (CD45+) had increased expression of many immune markers, suggesting a diverse and robust immune response. In epithelium-enriched areas, immune signals were also detectable and varied by subtype, with regulatory T-cell (Treg) markers (CD4, CD25, and FOXP3) being higher in Basal-like vs. Luminal breast cancer. Extending these findings to TMAs with more patients (n = 75), we confirmed subtype-specific immune profiles, including enrichment of Treg markers in Basal-likes. This work demonstrated that immune responses can be detected in epithelium-rich tissue, and that TMAs are a viable approach for obtaining important immunoprofiling data. In addition, we found that immune marker expression is associated with breast cancer subtype, suggesting possible prognostic, or targetable differences.

Hematopoietic Stem cell transplantation and lentiviral vector-based gene therapy for Krabbe's disease: Present convictions and future prospects.

Currently, presymtomatic hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell transplantation (HSPCT) is the only therapeutic modality that alleviates Krabbe's disease (KD)-induced central nervous system damage. However, all HSPCT-treated patients exhibit severe deterioration in peripheral nervous system function characterized by major motor and expressive language pathologies. We hypothesize that a combination of several mechanisms contribute to this phenomenon, including 1) nonoptimal conditioning protocols with consequent inefficient engraftment and biodistribution of donor-derived cells and 2) insufficient uptake of donor cell-secreted galactocerebrosidease (GALC) secondary to a naturally low expression level of the cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate-receptor (CI-MPR). We have characterized the effects of a busulfan (Bu) based conditioning regimen on the efficacy of HSPCT in prolonging twi mouse average life span. There was no correlation between the efficiency of bone marrow engraftment of donor cells and twi mouse average life span. HSPCT prolonged the average life span of twi mice, which directly correlated with the aggressiveness of the Bu-mediated conditioning protocols. HSPC transduced with lentiviral vectors carrying the GALC cDNA under control of cell-specific promoters were efficiently engrafted in twi mouse bone marrow. To facilitate HSPCT-mediated correction of GALC deficiency in target cells expressing low levels of CI-MPR, a novel GALC fusion protein including the ApoE1 receptor was developed. Efficient cellular uptake of the novel fusion protein was mediated by a mannose-6-phosphate-independent mechanism. The novel findings described here elucidate some of the cellular mechanisms that impede the cure of KD patients by HSPCT and concomitantly open new directions to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of HSPCT protocols for KD. © 2016 The Authors. Journal of Neuroscience Research Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Automated Immunofluorescence Staining for Analysis of DNA Damage and Apoptosis in Brain Sections.

Neural progenitors show a strong tendency to undergo apoptosis in response to DNA damage, and both impaired DNA repair and increased neural progenitor apoptosis are associated with microcephaly. Here we present an immunohistochemistry-based method for assessing DNA damage and apoptosis in the neonatal mouse brain. These methods are suitable for determining in specific experimental conditions the fractions of cells with DNA double-strand breaks, the fractions of cells undergoing apoptosis, or both. While DNA damage in neural progenitors can trigger apoptosis, inappropriate apoptosis may also result from other processes. Simultaneous analysis of DNA damage and apoptosis in mouse models of microcephaly can determine how genetic instability and cell death contribute to the observed phenotype.

Processing Neonatal Mouse Brains for Immunohistochemical Analysis: As Required for Including Spindle Orientation Analysis and Analysis of DNA Damage and Apoptosis.

Analyzing sections of neonatal mouse brain using immunohistochemistry can inform microcephaly pathogenesis, but obtaining and staining high-quality sections can be challenging. The neonatal brain shows less structural integrity than the adult brain. As a result, embedding technique must be optimized to allow sections without cracks or other anatomic disruptions. Moreover, paraffin embedding, which maximized tissue preservation, can reduce antigenicity of proteins in the embedded tissues. We describe an optimized embedding technique and antigen recovery technique that allows successful sectioning and immunohistochemical staining.

Automated Immunofluorescence Staining for Analysis of Mitotic Stages and Division Orientation in Brain Sections.

Microcephaly often results from mitotic defects in neuronal progenitors, frequently by decreasing proliferation rates or shifting cell fates. During neurogenesis, oriented cell division-the molecular control of mitotic spindle positioning to control the axis of division-represents an important mechanism to balance expansion of the progenitor pool with generating cellular diversity. While mostly studied in the context of cortical development, more recently, spindle orientation has emerged as a key player in the formation of other brain regions such as the cerebellum. Here we describe methods to perform automated dual-color fluorescent immunohistochemistry on murine cerebellar sections using the mitotic markers phospho-Histone H3 and Survivin, and detail analytical and statistical approaches to display and compare division orientation datasets.

Increased tryptophan, but not increased glucose metabolism, predict resistance of pembrolizumab in stage III/IV melanoma.

Clinical trials of combined IDO/PD1 blockade in metastatic melanoma (MM) failed to show additional clinical benefit compared to PD1-alone inhibition. We reasoned that a tryptophan-metabolizing pathway other than the kynurenine one is essential. We immunohistochemically stained tissues along the nevus-to-MM progression pathway for tryptophan-metabolizing enzymes (TMEs; TPH1, TPH2, TDO2, IDO1) and the tryptophan transporter, LAT1. We assessed tryptophan and glucose metabolism by performing baseline C11-labeled α-methyl tryptophan (C11-AMT) and fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET imaging of tumor lesions in a prospective clinical trial of pembrolizumab in MM (clinicaltrials.gov, NCT03089606). We found higher protein expression of all TMEs and LAT1 in melanoma cells than tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) within MM tumors (n = 68). Melanoma cell-specific TPH1 and LAT1 expressions were significantly anti-correlated with TIL presence in MM. High melanoma cell-specific LAT1 and low IDO1 expression were associated with worse overall survival (OS) in MM. Exploratory optimal cutpoint survival analysis of pretreatment 'high' vs. 'low' C11-AMT SUVmax of the hottest tumor lesion per patient revealed that the 'low' C11-AMT SUVmax was associated with longer progression-free survival in our clinical trial (n = 26). We saw no such trends with pretreatment FDG PET SUVmax. Treatment of melanoma cell lines with telotristat, a TPH1 inhibitor, increased IDO expression and kynurenine production in addition to suppression of serotonin production. High melanoma tryptophan metabolism is a poor predictor of pembrolizumab response and an adverse prognostic factor. Serotoninergic but not kynurenine pathway activation may be significant. Melanoma cells outcompete adjacent TILs, eventually depriving the latter of an essential amino acid.

Preinvasive Colorectal Lesions of African Americans Display an Immunosuppressive Signature Compared to Caucasian Americans.

BACKGROUND: African Americans (AAs) have higher colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence and mortality rate than Caucasian Americans (CAs). Recent studies suggest that immune responses within CRCs contribute to the disparities. If racially distinct immune signatures are present in the early phases of carcinogenesis, they could be used to develop interventions to prevent or slow disease. METHODS: We selected a convenience sample of 95 patients (48 CAs, 47 AAs) with preinvasive colorectal adenomas from the surgical pathology laboratory at the Medical University of South Carolina. Using immunofluorescent-conjugated antibodies on tissue slides from the lesions, we quantified specific immune cell populations: mast cells (CD117+), Th17 cells (CD4+RORC+), and NK cell ligand (MICA/B) and inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-17A, and IFN-γ. We compared the mean density counts (MDCs) and density rate ratios (RR) and 95% CI of immune markers between AAs to CAs using negative binomial regression analysis. We adjusted our models for age, sex, clinicopathologic characteristics (histology, location, dysplasia), and batch. RESULTS: We observed no racial differences in age or sex at the baseline endoscopic exam. AAs compared to CAs had a higher prevalence of proximal adenomas (66% vs. 40%) and a lower prevalence of rectal adenomas (11% vs. 23%) (p =0.04) but no other differences in pathologic characteristics. In age, sex, and batch adjusted models, AAs vs. CAs had lower RRs for cells labeled with IFNγ (RR 0.50 (95% CI 0.32-0.81); p=0.004) and NK cell ligand (RR 0.67 (0.43-1.04); p=0.07). In models adjusted for age, sex, and clinicopathologic variables, AAs had reduced RRs relative to CAs for CD4 (p=0.02), NK cell ligands (p=0.01), Th17 (p=0.005), mast cells (p=0.04) and IFN-γ (p< 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the lower RRs in AAs vs. CAs suggests reduced effector response capacity and an immunosuppressive ('cold') tumor environment. Our results also highlight the importance of colonic location of adenoma in influencing these differences; the reduced immune responses in AAs relative to CAs may indicate impaired immune surveillance in early carcinogenesis. Future studies are needed to understand the role of risk factors (such as obesity) in influencing differences in immune responses by race.

Immune Responses Vary in Preinvasive Colorectal Lesions by Tumor Location and Histology.

Immune responses vary in colorectal cancers, which strongly influence prognosis. However, little is known about the variance in immune response within preinvasive lesions. The study aims to investigate how the immune contexture differs by clinicopathologic features (location, histology, dysplasia) associated with progression and recurrence in early carcinogenesis. We performed a cross-sectional study using preinvasive lesions from the surgical pathology laboratory at the Medical University of South Carolina. We stained the tissues with immunofluorescence antibodies, then scanned and analyzed expression using automated image analysis software. We stained CD117 as a marker of mast cells, CD4/RORC to indicate Th17 cells, MICA/B as a marker of NK-cell ligands, and also used antibodies directed against cytokines IL6, IL17A, and IFNγ. We used negative binomial regression analysis to compare analyte density counts by location, histology, degree of dysplasia adjusted for age, sex, race, and batch. All immune markers studied (except IL17a) had significantly higher density counts in the proximal colon than distal colon and rectum. Increases in villous histology were associated with significant decreases in immune responses for IL6, IL17a, NK ligand, and mast cells. No differences were observed in lesions with low- and high-grade dysplasia, except in mast cells. The lesions of the proximal colon were rich in immune infiltrate, paralleling the responses observed in normal mucosa and invasive disease. The diminishing immune response with increasing villous histology suggests an immunologically suppressive tumor environment. Our findings highlight the heterogeneity of the immune responses in preinvasive lesions, which may have implications for prevention strategies. PREVENTION RELEVANCE: Our study is focused on immune infiltrate expression in preinvasive colorectal lesions; our results suggest important differences by clinicopathologic features that have implications for immune prevention research.

Overproduction of DNA polymerase eta does not raise the spontaneous mutation rate in diploid human fibroblasts.

Telomerase-immortalized lines of diploid xeroderma pigmentosum variant (XP-V) fibroblasts (XP115LO and XP4BE) were complemented for constitutive or regulated expression of wild-type human DNA polymerase eta (hpol eta). The ectopic gene was expressed from a retroviral LTR at a population average of 34- to 59-fold above the endogenous (mutated) mRNA and high levels of hpol eta were detected by immunoblotting. The POLH cDNA was also cloned downstream from an ecdysone-regulated promoter and transduced into the same recipient cells. Abundance of the wild-type mRNA increased approximately 10-fold by addition of ponasterone to the culture medium. Complemented cell lines acquired normal resistance to the cytotoxic effects of UVC, even in the presence of 1mM caffeine. They also tolerated higher levels of UVC-induced template lesions during nascent DNA elongation when compared to normal fibroblasts (NHF). UVC-induced mutation frequencies at the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HPRT) locus were measured in the XP115LO+XPV cell line overproducing hpol eta constitutively (E. Bassett, N.M. King, M.F. Bryant, S. Hector, L. Pendyala, S.G. Chaney, M. Cordeiro-Stone, The role of DNA polymerase eta in translesion synthesis past platinum-DNA adducts in human fibroblasts, Cancer Res. 64 (2004) 6469-6475). Induced mutation frequencies were significantly reduced, even below those observed in NHF; however, the average mutation frequency in untreated cultures was about three-fold higher than in the isogenic vector-control cell line. In this study, spontaneous HPRT mutation frequencies were measured at regular intervals, as isogenic fibroblasts either lacking or overproducing hpol eta were expanded for 100 population doublings. The mutation rates estimated from these results were not significantly increased in XP115LO cells expressing abnormal levels of hpol eta, relative to the cells lacking this specialized polymerase. These findings suggest that diploid human fibroblasts with normal DNA repair capacities and intact checkpoints are well protected against the potential mutagenic outcome of overproducing hpol eta, while still benefiting from accurate translesion synthesis of UV-induced pyrimidine dimers.

Rational Manual and Automated Scoring Thresholds for the Immunohistochemical Detection of TP53 Missense Mutations in Human Breast Carcinomas.

Missense mutations in TP53 are common in human breast cancer, have been associated with worse prognosis, and may predict therapy effect. TP53 missense mutations are associated with aberrant accumulation of p53 protein in tumor cell nuclei. Previous studies have used relatively arbitrary cutoffs to characterize breast tumors as positive for p53 staining by immunohistochemical assays. This study aimed to objectively determine optimal thresholds for p53 positivity by manual and automated scoring methods using whole tissue sections from the Carolina Breast Cancer Study. p53-immunostained slides were available for 564 breast tumors previously assayed for TP53 mutations. Average nuclear p53 staining intensity was manually scored as negative, borderline, weak, moderate, or strong and percentage of positive tumor cells was estimated. Automated p53 signal intensity was measured using the Aperio nuclear v9 algorithm combined with the Genie histology pattern recognition tool and tuned to achieve optimal nuclear segmentation. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to determine optimal cutoffs for average staining intensity and percent cells positive to distinguish between tumors with and without a missense mutation. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis demonstrated a threshold of moderate average nuclear staining intensity as a good surrogate for TP53 missense mutations in both manual (area under the curve=0.87) and automated (area under the curve=0.84) scoring systems. Both manual and automated immunohistochemical scoring methods predicted missense mutations in breast carcinomas with high accuracy. Validation of the automated intensity scoring threshold suggests a role for such algorithms in detecting TP53 missense mutations in high throughput studies.

Efficacy of Carboplatin Alone and in Combination with ABT888 in Intracranial Murine Models of BRCA-Mutated and BRCA-Wild-Type Triple-Negative Breast Cancer.

Patients with breast cancer brain metastases have extremely limited survival and no approved systemic therapeutics. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) commonly metastasizes to the brain and predicts poor prognosis. TNBC frequently harbors BRCA mutations translating to platinum sensitivity potentially augmented by additional suppression of DNA repair mechanisms through PARP inhibition. We evaluated brain penetrance and efficacy of carboplatin ± the PARP inhibitor ABT888, and investigated gene-expression changes in murine intracranial TNBC models stratified by BRCA and molecular subtype status. Athymic mice were inoculated intracerebrally with BRCA-mutant: SUM149 (basal), MDA-MB-436 (claudin-low); or BRCA-wild-type (wt): MDA-MB-468 (basal), MDA-MB-231BR (claudin-low). TNBC cells were treated with PBS control [intraperitoneal (IP), weekly], carboplatin (50 mg/kg/wk, IP), ABT888 (25 mg/kg/d, oral gavage), or their combination. DNA damage (γ-H2AX), apoptosis (cleaved caspase-3, cC3), and gene expression were measured in intracranial tumors. Carboplatin ± ABT888 significantly improved survival in BRCA-mutant intracranial models compared with control, but did not improve survival in BRCA-wt intracranial models. Carboplatin + ABT888 revealed a modest survival advantage versus carboplatin in BRCA-mutant models. ABT888 yielded a marginal survival benefit in the MDA-MB-436, but not in the SUM149 model. BRCA-mutant SUM149 expression of γ-H2AX and cC3 proteins was elevated in all treatment groups compared with control, whereas BRCA-wt MDA-MB-468 cC3 expression did not increase with treatment. Carboplatin treatment induced common gene-expression changes in BRCA-mutant models. Carboplatin ± ABT888 penetrates the brain and improves survival in BRCA-mutant intracranial TNBC models with corresponding DNA damage and gene-expression changes. Combination therapy represents a potential promising treatment strategy for patients with TNBC brain metastases warranting further clinical investigation.

IL2 Inducible T-cell Kinase, a Novel Therapeutic Target in Melanoma.

PURPOSE: IL2 inducible T-cell kinase (ITK) promoter CpG sites are hypomethylated in melanomas compared with nevi. The expression of ITK in melanomas, however, has not been established and requires elucidation. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: An ITK-specific monoclonal antibody was used to probe sections from deidentified, formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor blocks or cell line arrays and ITK was visualized by IHC. Levels of ITK protein differed among melanoma cell lines and representative lines were transduced with four different lentiviral constructs that each contained an shRNA designed to knockdown ITK mRNA levels. The effects of the selective ITK inhibitor BI 10N on cell lines and mouse models were also determined. RESULTS: ITK protein expression increased with nevus to metastatic melanoma progression. In melanoma cell lines, genetic or pharmacologic inhibition of ITK decreased proliferation and migration and increased the percentage of cells in the G0-G1 phase. Treatment of melanoma-bearing mice with BI 10N reduced growth of ITK-expressing xenografts or established autochthonous (Tyr-Cre/Pten(null)/Braf(V600E)) melanomas. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that ITK, formerly considered an immune cell-specific protein, is aberrantly expressed in melanoma and promotes tumor development and progression. Our finding that ITK is aberrantly expressed in most metastatic melanomas suggests that inhibitors of ITK may be efficacious for melanoma treatment. The efficacy of a small-molecule ITK inhibitor in the Tyr-Cre/Pten(null)/Braf(V600E) mouse melanoma model supports this possibility.

Asymmetry of DNA replication and translesion synthesis of UV-induced thymine dimers.

In vitro replication assays for detection and quantification of bypass of UV-induced DNA photoproducts were used to compare the capacity of extracts prepared from different human cell lines to replicate past the cis,syn cyclobutane thymine dimer ([c,s]TT). The results demonstrated that neither nucleotide excision repair (NER) nor mismatch repair (MMR) activities in the intact cells interfered with measurements of bypass replication efficiencies in vitro. Extracts prepared from HeLa (NER- and MMR-proficient), xeroderma pigmentosum group A (NER-deficient), and HCT116 (MMR-deficient) cells displayed similar capacity for translesion synthesis, when the substrate carried the site-specific [c,s]TT on the template for the leading or the lagging strand of nascent DNA. Extracts from xeroderma pigmentosum variant cells, which lack DNA polymerase eta, were devoid of bypass activity. Bypass-proficient extracts as a group (n=16 for 3 extracts) displayed higher efficiency (P=0.005) for replication past the [c,s]TT during leading strand synthesis (84+/-22%) than during lagging strand synthesis (64+/-13%). These findings are compared to previous results concerning the bypass of the (6-4) photoproduct [Biochemistry 40 (2001) 15215] and analyzed in the context of the reported characteristics of bypass DNA polymerases implicated in translesion synthesis of UV-induced DNA lesions. Models to explain how these enzymes might interact with the DNA replication machinery are considered. An alternative pathway of bypass replication, which avoids translesion synthesis, and the mutagenic potential of post-replication repair mechanisms that contribute to the duplication of the human genome damaged by UV are discussed.

Caffeine and human DNA metabolism: the magic and the mystery.

The ability of caffeine to reverse cell cycle checkpoint function and enhance genotoxicity after DNA damage was examined in telomerase-expressing human fibroblasts. Caffeine reversed the ATM-dependent S and G2 checkpoint responses to DNA damage induced by ionizing radiation (IR), as well as the ATR- and Chk1-dependent S checkpoint response to ultraviolet radiation (UVC). Remarkably, under conditions in which IR-induced G2 delay was reversed by caffeine, IR-induced G1 arrest was not. Incubation in caffeine did not increase the percentage of cells entering the S phase 6-8h after irradiation; ATM-dependent phosphorylation of p53 and transactivation of p21(Cip1/Waf1) post-IR were resistant to caffeine. Caffeine alone induced a concentration- and time-dependent inhibition of DNA synthesis. It inhibited the entry of human fibroblasts into S phase by 70-80% regardless of the presence or absence of wildtype ATM or p53. Caffeine also enhanced the inhibition of cell proliferation induced by UVC in XP variant fibroblasts. This effect was reversed by expression of DNA polymerase eta, indicating that translesion synthesis of UVC-induced pyrimidine dimers by DNA pol eta protects human fibroblasts against UVC genotoxic effects even when other DNA repair functions are compromised by caffeine.

Effects of tumor microenvironment heterogeneity on nanoparticle disposition and efficacy in breast cancer tumor models.

PURPOSE: Tumor cells are surrounded by a complex microenvironment. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the role of heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment in the variability of nanoparticle (NP) delivery and efficacy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS: C3(1)-T-Antigen genetically engineered mouse model (C3-TAg) and T11/TP53(Null) orthotopic syngeneic murine transplant model (T11) representing human breast tumor subtypes basal-like and claudin-low, respectively, were evaluated. For the pharmacokinetic studies, non-liposomal doxorubicin (NL-doxo) or polyethylene glycol tagged (PEGylated) liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) was administered at 6 mg/kg i.v. x1. Area under the concentration versus time curve (AUC) of doxorubicin was calculated. Macrophages, collagen, and the amount of vasculature were assessed by IHC. Chemokines and cytokines were measured by multiplex immunochemistry. NL-doxo or PLD was administered at 6 mg/kg i.v. weekly x6 in efficacy studies. Analyses of intermediary tumor response and overall survival were performed. RESULTS: Plasma AUC of NL-doxo and PLD encapsulated and released doxorubicin was similar between two models. However, tumor sum total AUC of PLD was 2-fold greater in C3-TAg compared with T11 (P < 0.05). T11 tumors showed significantly higher expression of CC chemokine ligand (CCL) 2 and VEGF-a, greater vascular quantity, and decreased expression of VEGF-c compared with C3-TAg (P < 0.05). PLD was more efficacious compared with NL-doxo in both models. CONCLUSION: The tumor microenvironment and/or tumor cell features of breast cancer affected NP tumor delivery and efficacy, but not the small-molecule drug. Our findings reveal the role of the tumor microenvironment in variability of NP delivery and therapeutic outcomes.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles activate the ATM-Chk2 DNA damage response in human dermal fibroblasts.

The use of nanoparticles in consumer products increases their prevalence in the environment and the potential risk to human health. Although recent studies have shown in vivo and in vitro toxicity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO2), a more detailed view of the underlying mechanisms of this response needs to be established. Here, the effects of nano-TiO2 on the DNA damage response and DNA replication dynamics were investigated in human dermal fibroblasts. Specifically, the relationship between nano-TiO2 and the DNA damage response pathways regulated by ATM/Chk2 and ATR/Chk1 was examined. The results show increased phosphorylation of H2AX, ATM, and Chk2 after exposure. In addition, nano-TiO2 inhibited the overall rate of DNA synthesis and frequency of replicon initiation events in DNA-combed fibres. Taken together, these results demonstrate that exposure to nano-TiO2 activates the ATM/Chk2 DNA damage response pathway.

MERTK receptor tyrosine kinase is a therapeutic target in melanoma.

Metastatic melanoma is one of the most aggressive forms of cutaneous cancers. Although recent therapeutic advances have prolonged patient survival, the prognosis remains dismal. C-MER proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase (MERTK) is a receptor tyrosine kinase with oncogenic properties that is often overexpressed or activated in various malignancies. Using both protein immunohistochemistry and microarray analyses, we demonstrate that MERTK expression correlates with disease progression. MERTK expression was highest in metastatic melanomas, followed by primary melanomas, while the lowest expression was observed in nevi. Additionally, over half of melanoma cell lines overexpressed MERTK compared with normal human melanocytes; however, overexpression did not correlate with mutations in BRAF or RAS. Stimulation of melanoma cells with the MERTK ligand GAS6 resulted in the activation of several downstream signaling pathways including MAPK/ERK, PI3K/AKT, and JAK/STAT. MERTK inhibition via shRNA reduced MERTK-mediated downstream signaling, reduced colony formation by up to 59%, and diminished tumor volume by 60% in a human melanoma murine xenograft model. Treatment of melanoma cells with UNC1062, a novel MERTK-selective small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitor, reduced activation of MERTK-mediated downstream signaling, induced apoptosis in culture, reduced colony formation in soft agar, and inhibited invasion of melanoma cells. This work establishes MERTK as a therapeutic target in melanoma and provides a rationale for the continued development of MERTK-targeted therapies.

Assays of bypass replication of genotoxic lesions in cell-free extracts.

The in vitro replication assay described here measures bidirectional replication of a circular double- stranded DNA template upon initiation at the SV40 origin. It models a single eukaryotic replication unit (replicon) and recapitulates the biochemical steps involved in the catalysis of both leading and lagging strand synthesis during semiconservative DNA replication. Except for the SV40 large T antigen, all other proteins necessary for initiation and assembly of functional replication forks are provided by the cell-free extract. This assay can be used to demonstrate bypass replication of genotoxic lesions. It supports replication across a specific damaged site on the template DNA (i.e., translesion synthesis) by specialized DNA polymerases. This chapter illustrates the efficient translesion synthesis of UV-induced thymine dimers by DNA polymerase eta.

RhoGDI2 antagonizes ovarian carcinoma growth, invasion and metastasis.

Previous studies described functional roles for Rho GDP dissociation inhibitor 2 (RhoGDI2) in bladder, gastric and breast cancers. However, only limited expression and no functional analyses have been done for RhoGDI2 in ovarian cancer. We determined RhoGDI2 protein expression and function in ovarian cancer. First, protein gel blot analysis was performed to determine the expression levels of RhoGDI2 in ovarian cells lines. RhoGDI2 but not RhoGDI1 protein expression levels varied widely in ovarian carcinoma cell lines, with elevated levels seen in Ras-transformed ovarian epithelial cells. Next, immunohistochemistry was performed to detect RhoGDI2 expression in patient samples of ovarian cysts and ovarian cancer with known histological subtype, stage, grade and outcome. RhoGDI2 protein was significantly overexpressed in high-grade compared with low-grade ovarian cancers, correlated with histological subtype, and did not correlate with stage of ovarian cancer nor between carcinomas and benign cysts. Unexpectedly, stable suppression of RhoGDI2 protein expression in HeyA8 ovarian cancer cells increased anchorage-independent growth and Matrigel invasion in vitro and in tail-vein lung colony metastatic growth in vivo. Finally, we found that RhoGDI2 stably-associated preferentially with Rac1 and suppression of RhoGDI2 expression resulted in decreased Rac1 activity and Rac-associated JNK and p38 mitogenactivated protein kinase signaling. RhoGDI2 antagonizes the invasive and metastatic phenotype of HeyA8 ovarian cancer cells. In summary, our results suggest significant cell context differences in RhoGDI2 function in cancer cell growth.

Ubiquitylation of proliferating cell nuclear antigen and recruitment of human DNA polymerase eta.

This study investigated the requirement for ubiquitylation of PCNA at lysine 164 during polymerase eta-dependent translesion synthesis (TLS) of site-specific cis-syn cyclobutane thymine dimers (T (wedge)T). The in vitro assay recapitulated origin-dependent initiation, fork assembly, and semiconservative, bidirectional replication of double-stranded circular DNA substrates. A phosphocellulose column was used to fractionate HeLa cell extracts into two fractions; flow-through column fraction I (CFI) contained endogenous PCNA, RPA, ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1, and ubiquitin conjugase Rad6, and eluted column fraction II (CFII) included pol delta, pol eta, and RFC. CFII supplemented with purified recombinant RPA and PCNA (wild type or K164R, in which lysine was replaced with arginine) was competent for DNA replication and TLS. K164R-PCNA complemented CFII for these activities to the same extent and efficiency as wild-type PCNA. CFII mixed with CFI (endogenous PCNA, E1, Rad6) exhibited enhanced DNA replication activity, but the same TLS efficiency determined with the purified proteins. These results demonstrate that PCNA ubiquitylation at K164 of PCNA is not required in vitro for pol eta to gain access to replication complexes at forks stalled by T (wedge)T and to catalyze TLS across this dimer.