Mapping Polar Distortions using Nanobeam Electron Diffraction and a Cepstral Approach.

Measuring local polar ordering is key to understanding ferroelectricity in thin films, especially for systems with small domains or significant disorder. Scanning nanobeam electron diffraction (NBED) provides an effective local probe of lattice parameters, local fields, polarization directions, and charge densities, which can be analyzed using a relatively low beam dose over large fields of view. However, quantitatively extracting the magnitudes and directions of polarization vectors from NBED remains challenging. Here, we use a cepstral approach, similar to a pair distribution function, to determine local polar displacements that drive ferroelectricity from NBED patterns. Because polar distortions generate asymmetry in the diffraction pattern intensity, we can efficiently recover the underlying displacements from the imaginary part of the cepstrum transform. We investigate the limits of this technique using analytical and simulated data and give experimental examples, achieving the order of 1.1 pm precision and mapping of polar displacements with nanometer resolution.

Atomically engineered ferroic layers yield a room-temperature magnetoelectric multiferroic.

Materials that exhibit simultaneous order in their electric and magnetic ground states hold promise for use in next-generation memory devices in which electric fields control magnetism. Such materials are exceedingly rare, however, owing to competing requirements for displacive ferroelectricity and magnetism. Despite the recent identification of several new multiferroic materials and magnetoelectric coupling mechanisms, known single-phase multiferroics remain limited by antiferromagnetic or weak ferromagnetic alignments, by a lack of coupling between the order parameters, or by having properties that emerge only well below room temperature, precluding device applications. Here we present a methodology for constructing single-phase multiferroic materials in which ferroelectricity and strong magnetic ordering are coupled near room temperature. Starting with hexagonal LuFeO3-the geometric ferroelectric with the greatest known planar rumpling-we introduce individual monolayers of FeO during growth to construct formula-unit-thick syntactic layers of ferrimagnetic LuFe2O4 (refs 17, 18) within the LuFeO3 matrix, that is, (LuFeO3)m/(LuFe2O4)1 superlattices. The severe rumpling imposed by the neighbouring LuFeO3 drives the ferrimagnetic LuFe2O4 into a simultaneously ferroelectric state, while also reducing the LuFe2O4 spin frustration. This increases the magnetic transition temperature substantially-from 240 kelvin for LuFe2O4 (ref. 18) to 281 kelvin for (LuFeO3)9/(LuFe2O4)1. Moreover, the ferroelectric order couples to the ferrimagnetism, enabling direct electric-field control of magnetism at 200 kelvin. Our results demonstrate a design methodology for creating higher-temperature magnetoelectric multiferroics by exploiting a combination of geometric frustration, lattice distortions and epitaxial engineering.

Highly conductive and chemically stable alkaline anion exchange membranes via ROMP of trans-cyclooctene derivatives.

Alkaline anion exchange membranes (AAEMs) are an important component of alkaline exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs), which facilitate the efficient conversion of fuels to electricity using nonplatinum electrode catalysts. However, low hydroxide conductivity and poor long-term alkaline stability of AAEMs are the major limitations for the widespread application of AEMFCs. In this paper, we report the synthesis of highly conductive and chemically stable AAEMs from the living polymerization of trans-cyclooctenes. A trans-cyclooctene-fused imidazolium monomer was designed and synthesized on gram scale. Using these highly ring-strained monomers, we produced a range of block and random copolymers. Surprisingly, AAEMs made from the random copolymer exhibited much higher conductivities than their block copolymer analogs. Investigation by transmission electron microscopy showed that the block copolymers had a disordered microphase segregation which likely impeded ion conduction. A cross-linked random copolymer demonstrated a high level of hydroxide conductivity (134 mS/cm at 80 °C). More importantly, the membranes exhibited excellent chemical stability due to the incorporation of highly alkaline-stable multisubstituted imidazolium cations. No chemical degradation was detected by 1H NMR spectroscopy when the polymers were treated with 2 M KOH in CD3OH at 80 °C for 30 d.

Revealing the atomic ordering of binary intermetallics using in situ heating techniques at multilength scales.

Ordered intermetallic nanoparticles are promising electrocatalysts with enhanced activity and durability for the oxygen-reduction reaction (ORR) in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). The ordered phase is generally identified based on the existence of superlattice ordering peaks in powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). However, after employing a widely used postsynthesis annealing treatment, we have found that claims of "ordered" catalysts were possibly/likely mixed phases of ordered intermetallics and disordered solid solutions. Here, we employed in situ heating, synchrotron-based, X-ray diffraction to quantitatively investigate the impact of a variety of annealing conditions on the degree of ordering of large ensembles of Pt3Co nanoparticles. Monte Carlo simulations suggest that Pt3Co nanoparticles have a lower order-disorder phase transition (ODPT) temperature relative to the bulk counterpart. Furthermore, we employed microscopic-level in situ heating electron microscopy to directly visualize the morphological changes and the formation of both fully and partially ordered nanoparticles at the atomic scale. In general, a higher degree of ordering leads to more active and durable electrocatalysts. The annealed Pt3Co/C with an optimal degree of ordering exhibited significantly enhanced durability, relative to the disordered counterpart, in practical membrane electrode assembly (MEA) measurements. The results highlight the importance of understanding the annealing process to maximize the degree of ordering in intermetallics to optimize electrocatalytic activity.

Dimensionality-Induced Change in Topological Order in Multiferroic Oxide Superlattices.

We construct ferroelectric (LuFeO_{3})_{m}/(LuFe_{2}O_{4}) superlattices with varying index m to study the effect of confinement on topological defects. We observe a thickness-dependent transition from neutral to charged domain walls and the emergence of fractional vortices. In thin LuFeO_{3} layers, the volume fraction of domain walls grows, lowering the symmetry from P6_{3}cm to P3c1 before reaching the nonpolar P6_{3}/mmc state, analogous to the group-subgroup sequence observed at the high-temperature ferroelectric to paraelectric transition. Our study shows how dimensional confinement stabilizes textures beyond those in bulk ferroelectric systems.

Pt-Richcore/Sn-Richsubsurface/Ptskin Nanocubes As Highly Active and Stable Electrocatalysts for the Ethanol Oxidation Reaction.

Direct ethanol fuel cells are one of the most promising electrochemical energy conversion devices for portable, mobile and stationary power applications. However, more efficient and stable and less expensive electrocatalysts are still required. Interestingly, the electrochemical performance of the electrocatalysts toward the ethanol oxidation reaction can be remarkably enhanced by exploiting the benefits of structural and compositional sensitivity and control. Here, we describe the synthesis, characterization, and electrochemical behavior of cubic Pt-Sn nanoparticles. The electrochemical activity of the cubic Pt-Sn nanoparticles was found to be about three times higher than that obtained with unshaped Pt-Sn nanoparticles and six times higher than that of Pt nanocubes. In addition, stability tests indicated the electrocatalyst preserves its morphology and remains well-dispersed on the carbon support after 5000 potential cycles, while a cubic (pure) Pt catalyst exhibited severe agglomeration of the nanoparticles after a similar stability testing protocol. A detailed analysis of the elemental distribution in the nanoparticles by STEM-EELS indicated that Sn dissolves from the outer part of the shell after potential cycling, forming a ∼0.5 nm Pt skin. This particular atomic composition profile having a Pt-rich core, a Sn-rich subsurface layer, and a Pt-skin surface structure is responsible for the high activity and stability.

Tuning the Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction Reaction Activity and Stability of Shape-Controlled Pt-Ni Nanoparticles by Thermal Annealing - Elucidating the Surface Atomic Structural and Compositional Changes.

Shape-controlled octahedral Pt-Ni alloy nanoparticles exhibit remarkably high activities for the electroreduction of molecular oxygen (oxygen reduction reaction, ORR), which makes them fuel-cell cathode catalysts with exceptional potential. To unfold their full and optimized catalytic activity and stability, however, the nano-octahedra require post-synthesis thermal treatments, which alter the surface atomic structure and composition of the crystal facets. Here, we address and strive to elucidate the underlying surface chemical processes using a combination of ex situ analytical techniques with in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM), in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD), and in situ electrochemical Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) experiments. We present a robust fundamental correlation between annealing temperature and catalytic activity, where a ∼25 times higher ORR activity than for commercial Pt/C (2.7 A mgPt-1 at 0.9 VRHE) was reproducibly observed upon annealing at 300 °C. The electrochemical stability, however, peaked out at the most severe heat treatments at 500 °C. Aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) in combination with in situ electrochemical CO stripping/FTIR data revealed subtle, but important, differences in the formation and chemical nature of Pt-rich and Ni-rich surface domains in the octahedral (111) facets. Estimating trends in surface chemisorption energies from in situ electrochemical CO/FTIR investigations suggested that balanced annealing generates an optimal degree of Pt surface enrichment, while the others exhibited mostly Ni-rich facets. The insights from our study are quite generally valid and aid in developing suitable post-synthesis thermal treatments for other alloy nanocatalysts as well.

A Simple Preparation Method for Full-Range Electron Tomography of Nanoparticles and Fine Powders.

Electron tomography has become a valuable and widely used tool for studying the three-dimensional nanostructure of materials and biological specimens. However, the incomplete tilt range provided by conventional sample holders limits the fidelity and quantitative interpretability of tomographic images by leaving a "missing wedge" of unknown information in Fourier space. Imaging over a complete range of angles eliminates missing wedge artifacts and dramatically improves tomogram quality. Full-range tomography is usually accomplished using needle-shaped samples milled from bulk material with focused ion beams, but versatile specimen preparation methods for nanoparticles and other fine powders are lacking. In this work, we present a new preparation technique in which powder specimens are supported on carbon nanofibers that extend beyond the end of a tungsten needle. Using this approach, we produced tomograms of platinum fuel cell catalysts and gold-decorated strontium titanate photocatalyst specimens. Without the missing wedge, these tomograms are free from elongation artifacts, supporting straightforward automatic segmentation and quantitative analysis of key materials properties such as void size and connectivity, and surface area and curvature. This approach may be generalized to other samples that can be dispersed in liquids, such as biological structures, creating new opportunities for high-quality electron tomography across disciplines.

Pinning Susceptibility: The Effect of Dilute, Quenched Disorder on Jamming.

We study the effect of dilute pinning on the jamming transition. Pinning reduces the average contact number needed to jam unpinned particles and shifts the jamming threshold to lower densities, leading to a pinning susceptibility, χ_{p}. Our main results are that this susceptibility obeys scaling form and diverges in the thermodynamic limit as χ_{p}∝|ϕ-ϕ_{c}^{∞}|^{-γ_{p}} where ϕ_{c}^{∞} is the jamming threshold in the absence of pins. Finite-size scaling arguments yield these values with associated statistical (systematic) errors γ_{p}=1.018±0.026(0.291) in d=2 and γ_{p}=1.534±0.120(0.822) in d=3. Logarithmic corrections raise the exponent in d=2 to close to the d=3 value, although the systematic errors are very large.

Multicomponent Nanomaterials with Complex Networked Architectures from Orthogonal Degradation and Binary Metal Backfilling in ABC Triblock Terpolymers.

Selective degradation of block copolymer templates and backfilling the open mesopores is an effective strategy for the synthesis of nanostructured hybrid and inorganic materials. Incorporation of more than one type of inorganic material in orthogonal ways enables the synthesis of multicomponent nanomaterials with complex yet well-controlled architectures; however, developments in this field have been limited by the availability of appropriate orthogonally degradable block copolymers for use as templates. We report the synthesis and self-assembly into cocontinuous network structures of polyisoprene-block-polystyrene-block-poly(propylene carbonate) where the polyisoprene and poly(propylene carbonate) blocks can be orthogonally removed from the polymer film. Through sequential block etching and backfilling the resulting mesopores with different metals, we demonstrate first steps toward the preparation of three-component polymer-inorganic hybrid materials with two distinct metal networks. Multiblock copolymers in which two blocks can be degraded and backfilled independently of each other, without interference from the other, may be used in a wide range of applications requiring periodically ordered complex multicomponent nanoarchitectures.

The exit-wave power-cepstrum transform for scanning nanobeam electron diffraction: robust strain mapping at subnanometer resolution and subpicometer precision.

Scanning nanobeam electron diffraction (NBED) with fast pixelated detectors is a valuable technique for rapid, spatially resolved mapping of lattice structure over a wide range of length scales. However, intensity variations caused by dynamical diffraction and sample mistilts can hinder the measurement of diffracted disk centers as necessary for quantification. Robust data processing techniques are needed to provide accurate and precise measurements for complex samples and non-ideal conditions. Here we present an approach to address these challenges using a transform, called the exit wave power cepstrum (EWPC), inspired by cepstral analysis in audio signal processing. The EWPC transforms NBED patterns into real-space patterns with sharp peaks corresponding to inter-atomic spacings. We describe a simple analytical model for interpretation of these patterns that cleanly decouples lattice information from the intensity variations in NBED patterns caused by tilt and thickness. By tracking the inter-atomic spacing peaks in EWPC patterns, strain mapping is demonstrated for two practical applications: mapping of ferroelectric domains in epitaxially strained PbTiO3 films and mapping of strain profiles in arbitrarily oriented core-shell Pt-Co nanoparticle fuel-cell catalysts. The EWPC transform enables lattice structure measurement at sub-pm precision and sub-nm resolution that is robust to small sample mistilts and random orientations.

Ultrahigh Rate Performance of a Robust Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide Cathode with Preferentially Orientated Li-Diffusing Channels.

Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) materials, with low cost and high energy density, are considered to be among the most promising cathode materials for Li-ion batteries (LIBs). However, several issues have hindered their further deployment, particularly for high-powered applications, including limited rate capability, capacity loss during cycling (especially at high temperatures and high voltages), and difficulty in reproducibly preparing the desired particle morphology. In this work, we have developed a robust LiNi0.33Mn0.33Co0.33O2 cathode material (NMC-111) capable of high-rate performance for LIBs. Our high power NMC-111 (HP-NMC) cathode materials showed significantly enhanced electrochemical performance, relative to a commercial NMC-111 (c-NMC), with discharge capacities of 138 and 131 mAh/g at high current rates of 20 and 30 C, respectively. The material also exhibited enhanced cycling stability under both room temperature and at 50 °C. We ascribe the high performance of our material to a unique crystalline microstructure observed by electron microscopy characterization, which showed preferential orientation of the Li-diffusing channels radially outward. This HP-NMC material achieved one of the highest performance metrics among NMC materials reported to date, especially for high-powered electric vehicles.

Sampling limits for electron tomography with sparsity-exploiting reconstructions.

Electron tomography (ET) has become a standard technique for 3D characterization of materials at the nano-scale. Traditional reconstruction algorithms such as weighted back projection suffer from disruptive artifacts with insufficient projections. Popularized by compressed sensing, sparsity-exploiting algorithms have been applied to experimental ET data and show promise for improving reconstruction quality or reducing the total beam dose applied to a specimen. Nevertheless, theoretical bounds for these methods have been less explored in the context of ET applications. Here, we perform numerical simulations to investigate performance of ℓ1-norm and total-variation (TV) minimization under various imaging conditions. From 36,100 different simulated structures, our results show specimens with more complex structures generally require more projections for exact reconstruction. However, once sufficient data is acquired, dividing the beam dose over more projections provides no improvements-analogous to the traditional dose-fraction theorem. Moreover, a limited tilt range of ±75° or less can result in distorting artifacts in sparsity-exploiting reconstructions. The influence of optimization parameters on reconstructions is also discussed.

Nanomaterial datasets to advance tomography in scanning transmission electron microscopy.

Electron tomography in materials science has flourished with the demand to characterize nanoscale materials in three dimensions (3D). Access to experimental data is vital for developing and validating reconstruction methods that improve resolution and reduce radiation dose requirements. This work presents five high-quality scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) tomography datasets in order to address the critical need for open access data in this field. The datasets represent the current limits of experimental technique, are of high quality, and contain materials with structural complexity. Included are tomographic series of a hyperbranched Co2P nanocrystal, platinum nanoparticles on a carbon nanofibre imaged over the complete 180° tilt range, a platinum nanoparticle and a tungsten needle both imaged at atomic resolution by equal slope tomography, and a through-focal tilt series of PtCu nanoparticles. A volumetric reconstruction from every dataset is provided for comparison and development of post-processing and visualization techniques. Researchers interested in creating novel data processing and reconstruction algorithms will now have access to state of the art experimental test data.