Monocarboxylate transporter antagonism reveals metabolic vulnerabilities of viral-driven lymphomas.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous herpesvirus that typically causes asymptomatic infection but can promote B lymphoid tumors in the immune suppressed. In vitro, EBV infection of primary B cells stimulates glycolysis during immortalization into lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Lactate export during glycolysis is crucial for continued proliferation of many cancer cells-part of a phenomenon known as the "Warburg effect"- and is mediated by monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs). However, the role of MCTs has yet to be studied in EBV-associated malignancies, which display Warburg-like metabolism in vitro. Here, we show that EBV infection of B lymphocytes directly promotes temporal induction of MCT1 and MCT4 through the viral proteins EBNA2 and LMP1, respectively. Functionally, MCT1 was required for early B cell proliferation, and MCT4 up-regulation promoted acquired resistance to MCT1 antagonism in LCLs. However, dual MCT1/4 inhibition led to LCL growth arrest and lactate buildup. Metabolic profiling in LCLs revealed significantly reduced oxygen consumption rates (OCRs) and NAD+/NADH ratios, contrary to previous observations of increased OCR and unaltered NAD+/NADH ratios in MCT1/4-inhibited cancer cells. Furthermore, U-13C6-glucose labeling of MCT1/4-inhibited LCLs revealed depleted glutathione pools that correlated with elevated reactive oxygen species. Finally, we found that dual MCT1/4 inhibition also sensitized LCLs to killing by the electron transport chain complex I inhibitors phenformin and metformin. These findings were extended to viral lymphomas associated with EBV and the related gammaherpesvirus KSHV, pointing at a therapeutic approach for targeting both viral lymphomas.

Discovery of 3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxamide activators of the M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2).

Activators of the pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) are currently attracting significant interest as potential anticancer therapies. They may achieve a novel antiproliferation response in cancer cells through modulation of the classic 'Warburg effect' characteristic of aberrant metabolism. In this Letter, we describe the optimization of a weakly active screening hit to a structurally novel series of small molecule 3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxamides as potent PKM2 activators.

Lactate transport inhibition therapeutically reprograms fibroblast metabolism in experimental pulmonary fibrosis.

Myofibroblast differentiation, essential for driving extracellular matrix synthesis in pulmonary fibrosis, requires increased glycolysis. While glycolytic cells must export lactate, the contributions of lactate transporters to myofibroblast differentiation are unknown. In this study, we investigated how MCT1 and MCT4, key lactate transporters, influence myofibroblast differentiation and experimental pulmonary fibrosis. Our findings reveal that inhibiting MCT1 or MCT4 reduces TGFß-stimulated pulmonary myofibroblast differentiation in vitro and decreases bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in vivo. Through comprehensive metabolic analyses, including bioenergetics, stable isotope tracing, metabolomics, and imaging mass spectrometry in both cells and mice, we demonstrate that inhibiting lactate transport enhances oxidative phosphorylation, reduces reactive oxygen species production, and diminishes glucose metabolite incorporation into fibrotic lung regions. Furthermore, we introduce VB253, a novel MCT4 inhibitor, which ameliorates pulmonary fibrosis in both young and aged mice, with comparable efficacy to established antifibrotic therapies. These results underscore the necessity of lactate transport for myofibroblast differentiation, identify MCT1 and MCT4 as promising pharmacologic targets in pulmonary fibrosis, and support further evaluation of lactate transport inhibitors for patients for whom limited therapeutic options currently exist.

Discovery of 4-phenyl-2-phenylaminopyridine based TNIK inhibitors.

A series of compounds based on a 4-phenyl-2-phenylaminopyridine scaffold that are potent and selective inhibitors of Traf2- and Nck-interacting kinase (TNIK) activity are described. These compounds were used as tools to test the importance of TNIK kinase activity in signaling and proliferation in Wnt-activated colorectal cancer cells. The results indicate that pharmacological inhibition of TNIK kinase activity has minimal effects on either Wnt/TCF4/ß-catenin-driven transcription or viability. The findings suggest that the kinase activity of TNIK may be less important to Wnt signaling than other aspects of TNIK function, such as its putative role in stabilizing the TCF4/ß-catenin transcriptional complex.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationship of 2-arylamino-4-aryl-pyrimidines as potent PAK1 inhibitors.

2-Arylamino-4-aryl-pyrimidines were found to be potent inhibitors of PAK1 kinase. The synthesis and SAR are described. The incorporation of a bromide at the 5-position of the pyrimidine core and in combination with a 1,2-dimethylpiperazine pendant domain yielded a lead compound with potent PAK1 inhibition and anti-proliferative activity in various colon cancer cell lines.

The pyruvate-lactate axis modulates cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure.

The metabolic rewiring of cardiomyocytes is a widely accepted hallmark of heart failure (HF). These metabolic changes include a decrease in mitochondrial pyruvate oxidation and an increased export of lactate. We identify the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) and the cellular lactate exporter monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4) as pivotal nodes in this metabolic axis. We observed that cardiac assist device-induced myocardial recovery in chronic HF patients was coincident with increased myocardial expression of the MPC. Moreover, the genetic ablation of the MPC in cultured cardiomyocytes and in adult murine hearts was sufficient to induce hypertrophy and HF. Conversely, MPC overexpression attenuated drug-induced hypertrophy in a cell-autonomous manner. We also introduced a novel, highly potent MCT4 inhibitor that mitigated hypertrophy in cultured cardiomyocytes and in mice. Together, we find that alteration of the pyruvate-lactate axis is a fundamental and early feature of cardiac hypertrophy and failure.

Validation of PAS Kinase, a Regulator of Hepatic Fatty Acid and Triglyceride Synthesis, as a Therapeutic Target for Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis.

Hyperactivation of sterol regulatory element binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c), which transcriptionally induces expression of enzymes responsible for de novo lipogenesis and triglyceride (TG) formation, is implicated in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)/nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) pathogenesis. Posttranslational SREBP-1c maturation and activation is stimulated by the protein per-arnt-sim kinase (PASK). PASK-knockout mice are phenotypically normal on a conventional diet but exhibit decreased hypertriglyceridemia, insulin resistance, and hepatic steatosis on a high-fat diet. We investigated the effects of pharmacologic PASK inhibition using BioE-1115, a selective and potent oral PASK inhibitor, in Zucker fatty (fa)/fa) rats, a genetic model of obesity, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance, and in a dietary murine model of NAFLD/NASH. Female Zucker (fa/fa) rats and lean littermate (fa/+) controls received BioE-1115 (3-100 mg/kg/day) and/or omega-3 fatty acids, and blood glucose, hemoglobin A1c, glucose tolerance, insulin, and serum TG were measured. C57BL/6J mice fed a high-fat/high-fructose diet (HF-HFrD) were treated with BioE-1115 (100 mg/kg/day) or vehicle. Body weight and fasting glucose were measured regularly; serum TG, body and organ weights, and liver TG and histology were assessed at sacrifice. Messenger RNA (mRNA) abundance of SREBP-1c target genes was measured in both models. In Zucker rats, BioE-1115 treatment produced significant dose-dependent reductions in blood glucose, insulin, and TG (all greater than omega-3 fatty acids) and dose dependently restored insulin sensitivity assessed by glucose tolerance testing. In HF-HFrD mice, BioE-1115 reduced body weight, liver weight, fasting blood glucose, serum TGs, hepatic TG, hepatic fibrosis, hepatocyte vacuolization, and bile duct hyperplasia. BioE-1115 reduced SREBP-1c target mRNA transcripts in both models. Conclusion: PASK inhibition mitigates many adverse metabolic consequences associated with an HF-HFrD and reduces hepatic fat content and fibrosis. This suggests that inhibition of PASK is an attractive therapeutic strategy for NAFLD/NASH treatment.

Substrate-assisted catalysis of peptide bond formation by the ribosome.

The ribosome accelerates the rate of peptide bond formation by at least 10(7)-fold, but the catalytic mechanism remains controversial. Here we report evidence that a functional group on one of the tRNA substrates plays an essential catalytic role in the reaction. Substitution of the P-site tRNA A76 2' OH with 2' H or 2' F results in at least a 10(6)-fold reduction in the rate of peptide bond formation, but does not affect binding of the modified substrates. Such substrate-assisted catalysis is relatively uncommon among modern protein enzymes, but it is a property predicted to be essential for the evolution of enzymatic function. These results suggest that substrate assistance has been retained as a catalytic strategy during the evolution of the prebiotic peptidyl transferase center into the modern ribosome.

HIS & HERS, magic magnesium and the ballet of protein synthesis.

The peptidyl transferase center of the ribosome is literally the mother of all protein enzymes, yet it was only recently that the content of its active site was found to be RNA and not protein. This review focuses on how this RNA enzyme orients its substrates and promotes the chemical reaction that is center stage in protein synthesis.

Pharmacologic activation of PKM2 slows lung tumor xenograft growth.

Inactivation of the M2 form of pyruvate kinase (PKM2) in cancer cells is associated with increased tumorigenicity. To test the hypothesis that tumor growth may be inhibited through the PKM2 pathway, we generated a series of small-molecule PKM2 activators. The compounds exhibited low nanomolar activity in both biochemical and cell-based PKM2 activity assays. These compounds did not affect the growth of cancer cell lines under normal conditions in vitro, but strongly inhibited the proliferation of multiple lung cancer cell lines when serine was absent from the cell culture media. In addition, PKM2 activators inhibited the growth of an aggressive lung adenocarcinoma xenograft. These findings show that PKM2 activation by small molecules influences the growth of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, and suggest that such compounds may augment cancer therapies.

Epigenetic drug discovery: targeting DNA methyltransferases.

Epigenetic modification of DNA leads to changes in gene expression. DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) comprise a family of nuclear enzymes that catalyze the methylation of CpG dinucleotides, resulting in an epigenetic methylome distinguished between normal cells and those in disease states such as cancer. Disrupting gene expression patterns through promoter methylation has been implicated in many malignancies and supports DNMTs as attractive therapeutic targets. This review focuses on the rationale of targeting DNMTs in cancer, the historical approach to DNMT inhibition, and current marketed hypomethylating therapeutics azacytidine and decitabine. In addition, we address novel DNMT inhibitory agents emerging in development, including CP-4200 and SGI-110, analogs of azacytidine and decitabine, respectively; the oligonucleotides MG98 and miR29a; and a number of reversible inhibitors, some of which appear to be selective against particular DNMT isoforms. Finally, we discuss future opportunities and challenges for next-generation therapeutics.

Functional redundancy of yeast proteins Reh1 and Rei1 in cytoplasmic 60S subunit maturation.

The biogenesis of the large (60S) ribosomal subunit in eukaryotes involves nucleolar, nucleoplasmic, and cytoplasmic steps. The cytoplasmic protein Rei1, found in all eukaryotes, was previously shown to be necessary for the nuclear reimport of 60S subunit export factor Arx1. In this study we investigate the function of Reh1, a protein with high sequence similarity to Rei1. We demonstrate an overlapping function for Reh1 and Rei1 in the cytoplasmic maturation of the 60S subunit that is independent of Arx1 recycling. We observe that strains lacking both Reh1 and Rei1 accumulate salt-labile 60S subunits, suggesting that Reh1/Rei1 is necessary for the cytoplasmic 60S subunit to adopt its mature, stable form.

Evidence against stabilization of the transition state oxyanion by a pKa-perturbed RNA base in the peptidyl transferase center.

The crystal structure of the ribosomal 50S subunit from Haloarcula marismortui in complex with the transition state analog CCdA-phosphate-puromycin (CCdApPmn) led to a mechanistic proposal wherein the universally conversed A2451 in the ribosomal active site acts as an "oxyanion hole" to promote the peptidyl transferase reaction [Nissen, P., Hansen, J., Ban, N., Moore, P.B., and Steitz, T.A. (2000) Science 289, 920-929]. In the model, close proximity (3 A) between the A2451 N3 and the nonbridging phosphoramidate oxygen of CCdApPmn suggested that the carbonyl oxyanion formed during the tetrahedral transition state is stabilized by hydrogen bonding to the protonated A2451 N3, the pKa of which must be perturbed substantially. We characterize the contribution of the putative hydrogen bond between the N3 of A2451 and the nonbridging phosphoramidate oxygen by using chemical protection and peptidyl transfer inhibition assays. If this putative hydrogen bond makes a significant thermodynamic contribution, then CCdApPmn-binding affinity to the 50S ribosomal subunit should be strongly pH-dependent, with affinity increasing as the pH is lowered. We report that CCdApPmn binds 50S ribosomes with essentially equal affinity at all pH values between 5.0 and 8.5. These data argue against a mechanism for peptidyl transfer in which a residue with near neutral pKa stabilizes the transition-state oxyanion, at least to the extent that CCdApPmn accurately mimics the transition state.