Volatilomes of human infection.

The human volatilome comprises a vast mixture of volatile emissions produced by the human body and its microbiomes. Following infection, the human volatilome undergoes significant shifts, and presents a unique medium for non-invasive biomarker discovery. In this review, we examine how the onset of infection impacts the production of volatile metabolites that reflects dysbiosis by pathogenic microbes. We describe key analytical workflows applied across both microbial and clinical volatilomics and emphasize the value in linking microbial studies to clinical investigations to robustly elucidate the metabolic species and pathways leading to the observed volatile signatures. We review the current state of the art across microbial and clinical volatilomics, outlining common objectives and successes of microbial-clinical volatilomic workflows. Finally, we propose key challenges, as well as our perspectives on emerging opportunities for developing clinically useful and targeted workflows that could significantly enhance and expedite current practices in infection diagnosis and monitoring.

Non-canonical Biosynthesis of the Brexane-Type Bishomosesquiterpene Chlororaphen through Two Consecutive Methylation Steps in Pseudomonas chlororaphis O6 and Variovorax boronicumulans PHE5-4.

A non-canonical biosynthetic pathway furnishing the first natural brexane-type bishomosesquiterpene (chlororaphen, C17 H28 ) was elucidated in the γ-proteobacterium Pseudomonas chlororaphis O6. A combination of genome mining, pathway cloning, in vitro enzyme assays, and NMR spectroscopy revealed a three-step pathway initiated by C10 methylation of farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP, C15 ) along with cyclization and ring contraction to furnish monocyclic γ-presodorifen pyrophosphate (γ-PSPP, C16 ). Subsequent C-methylation of γ-PSPP by a second C-methyltransferase furnishes the monocyclic α-prechlororaphen pyrophosphate (α-PCPP, C17 ), serving as the substrate for the terpene synthase. The same biosynthetic pathway was characterized in the ß-proteobacterium Variovorax boronicumulans PHE5-4, demonstrating that non-canonical homosesquiterpene biosynthesis is more widespread in the bacterial domain than previously anticipated.

The Endophytic Fungus Cyanodermella asteris Influences Growth of the Nonnatural Host Plant Arabidopsis thaliana.

Cyanodermella asteris is a fungal endophyte from Aster tataricus, a perennial plant from the northern part of Asia. Here, we demonstrated an interaction of C. asteris with Arabidopsis thaliana, Chinese cabbage, rapeseed, tomato, maize, or sunflower resulting in different phenotypes such as shorter main roots, massive lateral root growth, higher leaf and root biomass, and increased anthocyanin levels. In a variety of cocultivation assays, it was shown that these altered phenotypes are caused by fungal CO2, volatile organic compounds, and soluble compounds, notably astins. Astins A, C, and G induced plant growth when they were individually included in the medium. In return, A. thaliana stimulates the fungal astin C production during cocultivation. Taken together, our results indicate a bilateral interaction between the fungus and the plant. A stress response in plants is induced by fungal metabolites while plant stress hormones induced astin C production of the fungus. Interestingly, our results not only show unidirectional influence of the fungus on the plant but also vice versa. The plant is able to influence growth and secondary metabolite production in the endophyte, even when both organisms do not live in close contact, suggesting the involvement of volatile compounds.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Impact of bacterial volatiles on phytopathogenic fungi: an in vitro study on microbial competition and interaction.

Microorganisms in the rhizosphere are abundant and exist in very high taxonomic diversity. The major players are bacteria and fungi, and bacteria have evolved many strategies to prevail over fungi, among them harmful enzyme activities and noxious secondary metabolites. Interactions between plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and phytopathogenic fungi are potentially valuable since the plant would benefit from fungal growth repression. In this respect, the role of volatile bacterial metabolites in fungistasis has been demonstrated, but the mechanisms of action are less understood. We used three phytopathogenic fungal species (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Rhizoctonia solani, and Juxtiphoma eupyrena) as well as one non-phytopathogenic species (Neurospora crassa) and the plant growth promoting rhizobacterium Serratia plymuthica 4Rx13 in co-cultivation assays to investigate the influence of bacterial volatile metabolites on fungi on a cellular level. As a response to the treatment, we found elevated lipid peroxidation, which indirectly reflected the loss of fungal cell membrane integrity. An increase in superoxide dismutase, catalase, and laccase activities indicated oxidative stress. Acclimation to these adverse growth conditions completely restored fungal growth. One of the bioactive bacterial volatile compounds seemed to be ammonia, which was a component of the bacterial volatile mixture. Applied as a single compound in biogenic concentrations ammonia also caused an increase in lipid peroxidation and enzyme activities, but the extent and pattern did not fully match the effect of the entire bacterial volatile mixture.

Modular Halogenation, α-Hydroxylation, and Acylation by a Remarkably Versatile Polyketide Synthase.

Bacterial multimodular polyketide synthases (PKSs) are large enzymatic assembly lines that synthesize many bioactive natural products of therapeutic relevance. While PKS catalysis is mostly based on fatty acid biosynthetic principles, polyketides can be further diversified by post-PKS enzymes. Here, we characterized a remarkably versatile trans-acyltransferase (trans-AT) PKS from Serratia that builds structurally complex macrolides via more than ten functionally distinct PKS modules. In the oocydin PKS, we identified a new oxygenation module that α-hydroxylates polyketide intermediates, a halogenating module catalyzing backbone γ-chlorination, and modular O-acetylation by a thioesterase-like domain. These results from a single biosynthetic assembly line highlight the expansive biochemical repertoire of trans-AT PKSs and provide diverse modular tools for engineered biosynthesis from a close relative of E. coli.

mVOC 2.0: a database of microbial volatiles.

Metabolic capabilities of microorganisms include the production of secondary metabolites (e.g. antibiotics). The analysis of microbial volatile organic compounds (mVOCs) is an emerging research field with huge impact on medical, agricultural and biotechnical applied and basic science. The mVOC database (v1) has grown with microbiome research and integrated species information with data on emitted volatiles. Here, we present the mVOC 2.0 database with about 2000 compounds from almost 1000 species and new features to work with the database. The extended collection of compounds was augmented with data regarding mVOC-mediated effects on plants, fungi, bacteria and (in-)vertebrates. The mVOC database 2.0 now features a mass spectrum finder, which allows a quick mass spectrum comparison for compound identification and the generation of species-specific VOC signatures. Automatic updates, useful links and search for mVOC literature are also included. The mVOC database aggregates and refines available information regarding microbial volatiles, with the ultimate aim to provide a comprehensive and informative platform for scientists working in this research field. To address this need, we maintain a publicly available mVOC database at: http://bioinformatics.charite.de/mvoc.

Sodorifen Biosynthesis in the Rhizobacterium Serratia plymuthica Involves Methylation and Cyclization of MEP-Derived Farnesyl Pyrophosphate by a SAM-Dependent C-Methyltransferase.

The rhizobacterium Serratia plymuthica 4Rx13 releases a unique polymethylated hydrocarbon (C16H26) with a bicyclo[3.2.1]octadiene skeleton called sodorifen. Sodorifen production depends on a gene cluster carrying a C-methyltransferase and a terpene cyclase along with two enzymes of the 2- C-methyl-d-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. Comparative analysis of wild-type and mutant volatile organic compound profiles revealed a C-methyltransferase-dependent C16 alcohol called pre-sodorifen, the production of which is upregulated in the terpene cyclase mutant. The monocyclic structure of this putative intermediate in sodorifen biosynthesis was identified by NMR spectroscopy. In vitro assays with the heterologously expressed S. plymuthica C-methyltransferase and terpene cyclase demonstrated that these enzymes act sequentially to convert farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) into sodorifen via a pre-sodorifen pyrophosphate intermediate, indicating that the S-adenosyl methionine (SAM)-dependent C-methyltransferase from S. plymuthica exhibits unprecedented cyclase activity. In vivo incorporation experiments with 13C-labeled succinate, l-alanine, and l-methionine confirmed a MEP pathway to FPP via the canonical glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and pyruvate, as well as its SAM-dependent methylation in pre-sodorifen and sodorifen biosynthesis. 13C{1H} NMR spectroscopy facilitated the localization of 13C labels and provided detailed insights into the biosynthetic pathway from FPP via pre-sodorifen pyrophosphate to sodorifen.

A Polyketide Synthase Component for Oxygen Insertion into Polyketide Backbones.

Enzymatic core components from trans-acyltransferase polyketide synthases (trans-AT PKSs) catalyze exceptionally diverse biosynthetic transformations to generate structurally complex bioactive compounds. Here we focus on a group of oxygenases identified in various trans-AT PKS pathways, including those for pederin, oocydins, and toblerols. Using the oocydin pathway homologue (OocK) from Serratia plymuthica 4Rx13 and N-acetylcysteamine (SNAC) thioesters as test surrogates for acyl carrier protein (ACP)-tethered intermediates, we show that the enzyme inserts oxygen into ß-ketoacyl moieties to yield malonyl ester SNAC products. Based on these data and the identification of a non-hydrolyzed oocydin congener with retained ester moiety, we propose a unified biosynthetic pathway of oocydins, haterumalides, and biselides. By providing access to internal ester, carboxylate pseudostarter, and terminal hydroxyl functions, oxygen insertion into polyketide backbones greatly expands the biosynthetic scope of PKSs.

The α-Terpineol to 1,8-Cineole Cyclization Reaction of Tobacco Terpene Synthases.

Flowers of Nicotiana species emit a characteristic blend including the cineole cassette monoterpenes. This set of terpenes is synthesized by multiproduct enzymes, with either 1,8-cineole or α-terpineol contributing most to the volatile spectrum, thus referring to cineole or terpineol synthase, respectively. To understand the molecular and structural requirements of the enzymes that favor the biochemical formation of α-terpineol and 1,8-cineole, site-directed mutagenesis, in silico modeling, and semiempiric calculations were performed. Our results indicate the formation of α-terpineol by a nucleophilic attack of water. During this attack, the α-terpinyl cation is stabilized by π-stacking with a tryptophan side chain (tryptophan-253). The hypothesized catalytic mechanism of α-terpineol-to-1,8-cineole conversion is initiated by a catalytic dyad (histidine-502 and glutamate-249), acting as a base, and a threonine (threonine-278) providing the subsequent rearrangement from terpineol to cineol by catalyzing the autoprotonation of (S)-(-)-α-terpineol, which is the favored enantiomer product of the recombinant enzymes. Furthermore, by site-directed mutagenesis, we were able to identify amino acids at positions 147, 148, and 266 that determine the different terpineol-cineole ratios in Nicotiana suaveolens cineole synthase and Nicotiana langsdorffii terpineol synthase. Since amino acid 266 is more than 10 Å away from the active site, an indirect effect of this amino acid exchange on the catalysis is discussed.

Effects of discrete bioactive microbial volatiles on plants and fungi.

Plants live in association with microorganisms, which are well known as a rich source of specialized metabolites, including volatile compounds. The increasing numbers of described plant microbiomes allowed manifold phylogenetic tree deductions, but less emphasis is presently put on the metabolic capacities of plant-associated microorganisms. With the focus on small volatile metabolites we summarize (i) the knowledge of prominent bacteria of plant microbiomes; (ii) present the state-of-the-art of individual (discrete) microbial organic and inorganic volatiles affecting plants and fungi; and (iii) emphasize the high potential of microbial volatiles in mediating microbe-plant interactions. So far, 94 discrete organic and five inorganic compounds were investigated, most of them trigger alterations of the growth, physiology and defence responses in plants and fungi but little is known about the specific molecular and cellular targets. Large overlaps in emission profiles of the emitters and receivers render specific volatile organic compound-mediated interactions highly unlikely for most bioactive mVOCs identified so far.

mVOC: a database of microbial volatiles.

Scents are well known to be emitted from flowers and animals. In nature, these volatiles are responsible for inter- and intra-organismic communication, e.g. attraction and defence. Consequently, they influence and improve the establishment of organisms and populations in ecological niches by acting as single compounds or in mixtures. Despite the known wealth of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from species of the plant and animal kingdom, in the past, less attention has been focused on volatiles of microorganisms. Although fast and affordable sequencing methods facilitate the detection of microbial diseases, however, the analysis of signature or fingerprint volatiles will be faster and easier. Microbial VOCs (mVOCs) are presently used as marker to detect human diseases, food spoilage or moulds in houses. Furthermore, mVOCs exhibited antagonistic potential against pathogens in vitro, but their biological roles in the ecosystems remain to be investigated. Information on volatile emission from bacteria and fungi is presently scattered in the literature, and no public and up-to-date collection on mVOCs is available. To address this need, we have developed mVOC, a database available online at http://bioinformatics.charite.de/mvoc.

Enzyme functional evolution through improved catalysis of ancestrally nonpreferred substrates.

In this study, we investigated the role for ancestral functional variation that may be selected upon to generate protein functional shifts using ancestral protein resurrection, statistical tests for positive selection, forward and reverse evolutionary genetics, and enzyme functional assays. Data are presented for three instances of protein functional change in the salicylic acid/benzoic acid/theobromine (SABATH) lineage of plant secondary metabolite-producing enzymes. In each case, we demonstrate that ancestral nonpreferred activities were improved upon in a daughter enzyme after gene duplication, and that these functional shifts were likely coincident with positive selection. Both forward and reverse mutagenesis studies validate the impact of one or a few sites toward increasing activity with ancestrally nonpreferred substrates. In one case, we document the occurrence of an evolutionary reversal of an active site residue that reversed enzyme properties. Furthermore, these studies show that functionally important amino acid replacements result in substrate discrimination as reflected in evolutionary changes in the specificity constant (k(cat)/K(M)) for competing substrates, even though adaptive substitutions may affect K(M) and k(cat) separately. In total, these results indicate that nonpreferred, or even latent, ancestral protein activities may be coopted at later times to become the primary or preferred protein activities.

Characteristic alatoid 'cineole cassette' monoterpene synthase present in Nicotiana noctiflora.

Nicotiana species of the section Alatae emit a characteristic floral scent comprising the' cineole cassette' monoterpenes 1,8-cineole, limonene, myrcene, ß-pinene, α-pinene, sabinene and α-terpineol. All previously isolated 'cineole cassette'-monoterpene synthase genes are multi product enzymes that synthesize the seven compounds of the 'cineole cassette'. Interestingly, so far this 'alatoid' trait was only shared with the eponymous species Nicotiana suaveolens of the sister section Suaveolentes. To determine the origin of the 'cineole cassette' monoterpene phenotype other potential parent species of section Noctiflorae or Petunoides as well as of the distantly related section Trigonophyllae were analysed. A monoterpene synthase producing the set of 'cineole cassette' compounds was isolated from N. noctiflorae. N. obtusifolia emitted solely 1,8-cineole and no monoterpenes were found in floral scents of N. petunoides and N. palmeri. Interestingly, the phylogenetic analysis clustered the new gene of N. noctiflora closely to the terpineol synthase genes of e.g. N. alata rather than to cineole synthase genes of e.g. N. forgetiana.

Evolution-guided engineering of trans-acyltransferase polyketide synthases.

Bacterial multimodular polyketide synthases (PKSs) are giant enzymes that generate a wide range of therapeutically important but synthetically challenging natural products. Diversification of polyketide structures can be achieved by engineering these enzymes. However, notwithstanding successes made with textbook cis-acyltransferase (cis-AT) PKSs, tailoring such large assembly lines remains challenging. Unlike textbook PKSs, trans-AT PKSs feature an extraordinary diversity of PKS modules and commonly evolve to form hybrid PKSs. In this study, we analyzed amino acid coevolution to identify a common module site that yields functional PKSs. We used this site to insert and delete diverse PKS parts and create 22 engineered trans-AT PKSs from various pathways and in two bacterial producers. The high success rates of our engineering approach highlight the broader applicability to generate complex designer polyketides.

Volatiles of two growth-inhibiting rhizobacteria commonly engage AtWRKY18 function.

Interactions with the (a)biotic environment play key roles in a plant's fitness and vitality. In addition to direct surface-to-surface contact, volatile chemicals can also affect the physiology of organism. Volatiles of Serratia plymuthica and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia significantly inhibited growth and induced H(2) O(2) production in Arabidopsis in dual culture. Within 1 day, transcriptional changes were observed by promoter-GUS assays using a stress-inducible W-box-containing 4xGST1 construct. Expression studies performed at 6, 12 and 24 h revealed altered transcript levels for 889 genes and 655 genes in response to Se. plymuthica or St. maltophilia volatiles, respectively. Expression of 162 genes was altered in both treatments. Meta-analysis revealed that specifically volatile-responsive genes were significantly overlapping with those affected by abiotic stress. We use the term mVAMP (microbial volatile-associated molecular pattern) to describe these volatile-specific responses. Genes responsive to both treatments were enriched for W-box motifs in their promoters, and were significantly enriched for transcription factors (ERF2, ZAT10, MYB73 and WRKY18). The susceptibility of wrky18 mutant lines to volatiles was significantly delayed, suggesting an indispensable role for WRKY18 in bacterial volatile responses.

Effects of phytoestrogen extracts isolated from pumpkin seeds on estradiol production and ER/PR expression in breast cancer and trophoblast tumor cells.

Phytoestrogens have a controversial effect on hormone-dependent tumours. Herein, we investigated the effect of the pumpkin seed extract (PSE) on estradiol production and estrogen receptor (ER)-α/ER-ß/progesterone receptor (PR) status on MCF7, Jeg3, and BeWo cells. The PSE was prepared and analyzed by mass spectrometry. MCF7, Jeg3, and BeWo cells were incubated with various concentrations of PSE. Untreated cells served as controls. Supernatants were tested for estradiol production with an ELISA method. Furthermore, the effect of the PSE on ER-α/ER-ß/PR expression was assessed by immunocytochemistry. The PSE was found to contain both lignans and flavones. Estradiol production was elevated in MCF7, BeWo, and Jeg3 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. In MCF7 cells, a significant ER-α downregulation and a significant PR upregulation were observed. The above results after properly designed animal studies could highlight a potential role of pumpkin seed's lignans in breast cancer prevention and/or treatment.

Synthesis of 'cineole cassette' monoterpenes in Nicotiana section Alatae: gene isolation, expression, functional characterization and phylogenetic analysis.

The scent bouquets of flowers of Nicotiana species, particularly those of section Alatae, are rich in monoterpenes, including 1,8-cineole, limonene, ß-myrcene, α- and ß-pinene, sabinene, and α-terpineol. New terpene synthase genes were isolated from flowers of Nicotiana bonariensis, N. forgetiana, N. longiflora, and N. mutabilis. The recombinant enzymes synthesize simultaneously the characteristic 'cineole cassette' monoterpenes with 1,8-cineole as the dominant volatile product. Interestingly, amino acid sequence comparison and phylogenetic tree construction clustered the newly isolated cineole synthases (CIN) of section Alatae together with the catalytically similar CIN of N. suaveolens of section Suaveolentes, thus suggesting a common ancestor. These CIN genes of N. bonariensis, N. forgetiana, N. longiflora, and N. mutabilis are distinct from the terpineol synthases (TERs) of the taxonomically related N. alata and N. langsdorfii (both Alatae), thus indicating gene diversification of monoterpene synthases in section Alatae. Furthermore, the presence of CINs in species of the American section Alatae supports the hypothesis that one parent of the Australian section Suaveolentes was a member of the present section Alatae. Amino acid sequences of the Nicotiana CINs and TERs were compared to identify relevant amino acids of the cyclization reaction from α-terpineol to 1,8-cineole.

Volatile mediated interactions between bacteria and fungi in the soil.

Soil is one of the major habitats of bacteria and fungi. In this arena their interactions are part of a communication network that keeps microhabitats in balance. Prominent mediator molecules of these inter- and intraorganismic relationships are inorganic and organic microbial volatile compounds (mVOCs). In this review the state of the art regarding the wealth of mVOC emission is presented. To date, ca. 300 bacteria and fungi were described as VOC producers and approximately 800 mVOCs were compiled in DOVE-MO (database of volatiles emitted by microorganisms). Furthermore, this paper summarizes morphological and phenotypical alterations and reactions that occur in the organisms due to the presence of mVOCs. These effects might provide clues for elucidating the biological and ecological significance of mVOC emissions and will help to unravel the entirety of belowground' volatile-wired' interactions.

Antiproliferative activity of lignans against the breast carcinoma cell lines MCF 7 and BT 20.

PURPOSE: Phytoestrogens are plant-derived, non-steroidal phytochemicals with anticarcinogenic potential. The major structural classes are the isoflavones and lignans. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of the plant-derived lignans secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol with the human lignans enterodiol and enterolactone as well as with 17ß estradiol and tamoxifen on cell proliferation of breast carcinoma cell lines. METHODS: The influence of the lignans, 17ß estradiol and tamoxifen on cell proliferation was determined using the BrdU test in MCF 7 and BT 20 cell lines. RESULTS: Enterodiol and enterolactone induced a stronger inhibition of cell growth in MCF 7 and BT 20 cells than secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol. The inhibition effects were less expressed in the BT 20 than in the MCF 7 cells. CONCLUSIONS: The human lignans enterodiol and enterolactone are more biologically active than their precursors secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol, and may be defined as the real drugs in cancer prevention.