Amazon plant diversity revealed by a taxonomically verified species list.

Recent debates on the number of plant species in the vast lowland rain forests of the Amazon have been based largely on model estimates, neglecting published checklists based on verified voucher data. Here we collate taxonomically verified checklists to present a list of seed plant species from lowland Amazon rain forests. Our list comprises 14,003 species, of which 6,727 are trees. These figures are similar to estimates derived from nonparametric ecological models, but they contrast strongly with predictions of much higher tree diversity derived from parametric models. Based on the known proportion of tree species in neotropical lowland rain forest communities as measured in complete plot censuses, and on overall estimates of seed plant diversity in Brazil and in the neotropics in general, it is more likely that tree diversity in the Amazon is closer to the lower estimates derived from nonparametric models. Much remains unknown about Amazonian plant diversity, but this taxonomically verified dataset provides a valid starting point for macroecological and evolutionary studies aimed at understanding the origin, evolution, and ecology of the exceptional biodiversity of Amazonian forests.

Chemotaxonomic study of Chrysobalanus icaco Linnaeus (Chrysobalanaceae) using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection fingerprint in combination with multivariate analysis.

We investigated a strategy for the chemotaxonomy study of Chrysobalanus icaco Linnaeus (Chrysobalanaceae) based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection fingerprint in combination with multivariate analysis. Two models using principal component analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis were developed, and the samples could be successfully classified into two classes: Class 1 (red morphotype) and Class 2 (white and black morphotypes). Furthermore, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry was used to identify the main compounds responsible for class separation. The partial least squares discriminant analysis model accurately classified the C. icaco samples using an external validation subset with prediction ability of 100% and revealed the existence of two chemotypes. The most important finding obtained in this study is that the three morphotypes distinguished by the mature fruit color (white, red, and black) are not all phytoequivalent to each other.

Unraveling the biogeographical history of Chrysobalanaceae from plastid genomes.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: The complex geological and climatic history of the Neotropics has had major implications on the diversification of plant lineages. Chrysobalanaceae is a pantropical family of trees and shrubs with 75% of its 531 species found in the Neotropics, and a time-calibrated phylogeny of this family should shed light on the tempo of diversification in the Neotropical flora. Previously published phylogenetic hypotheses of this family were poorly supported, and its biogeography remains unclear. METHODS: We assembled the complete plastid genome of 51 Chrysobalanaceae species, and increased taxon sampling by Sanger-sequencing of five plastid regions for an additional 88 species. We generated a time-calibrated tree including all 139 Chrsyobalanaceae species and 23 outgroups. We then conducted an ancestral area reconstruction analysis and estimated diversification rates in the family. KEY RESULTS: The tree generated with the plastid genome alignment was almost fully resolved. It supports the polyphyly of Licania and Hirtella. The family has diversified starting around the Eocene-Oligocene transition. An ancestral area reconstruction confirms a Paleotropical origin for Chrysobalanaceae with several transoceanic dispersal events. The main Neotropical clade likely resulted from a single migration event from Africa around 28 mya ago, which subsequently underwent rapid diversification. CONCLUSIONS: Given the diverse ecologies exhibited by extant species, we hypothesize that the rapid diversification of Chrysobalanaceae following the colonization of the Neotropics was triggered by habitat specialization during the complex geological and paleoclimatic history of the Neotropics.

Herbaria are a major frontier for species discovery.

Despite the importance of species discovery, the processes including collecting, recognizing, and describing new species are poorly understood. Data are presented for flowering plants, measuring quantitatively the lag between the date a specimen of a new species was collected for the first time and when it was subsequently described and published. The data from our sample of new species published between 1970 and 2010 show that only 16% were described within five years of being collected for the first time. The description of the remaining 84% involved much older specimens, with nearly one-quarter of new species descriptions involving specimens >50 y old. Extrapolation of these results suggest that, of the estimated 70,000 species still to be described, more than half already have been collected and are stored in herbaria. Effort, funding, and research focus should, therefore, be directed as much to examining extant herbarium material as collecting new material in the field.

A Taxonomically-verified and Vouchered Checklist of the Vascular Plants of the Republic of Guinea.

The Checklist of the Vascular Plants of the Republic of Guinea (CVPRG) is a specimen-based, expert-validated knowledge product, which provides a concise synthesis and overview of current knowledge on 3901 vascular plant species documented from Guinea (Conakry), West Africa, including their accepted names and synonyms, as well as their distribution and status within Guinea (indigenous or introduced, endemic or not). The CVPRG is generated automatically from the Guinea Collections Database and the Guinea Names Backbone Database, both developed and maintained at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in collaboration with the staff of the National Herbarium of Guinea. A total of 3505 indigenous vascular plant species are reported of which 3328 are flowering plants (angiosperms); this represents a 26% increase in known indigenous angiosperms since the last floristic overview. Intended as a reference for scientists documenting the diversity and distribution of the Guinea flora, the CVPRG will also inform those seeking to safeguard the rich plant diversity of Guinea and the societal, ecological and economic benefits accruing from these biological resources.

Three new species of Licania (Chrysobalanaceae) from Peru.

Recent collections received for identification contain three conspicuous new species for the mid altitude forests of Amazonian Peru. Licaniapalcazuensis, Licaniaapiknae and Licaniamonteagudensis are described as new and their relationship to other species is discussed. A key is provided for all the species of LicaniasubgenusLicaniasectionLicania known to occur in Peru.

A new species of Licania (Chrysobalanaceae) from Cordillera del Cóndor, Ecuador.

A new mid altitude species of the predominantly lowland genus Licania, Licania condoriensis from Ecuador is described and illustrated.

A new species of Roupala (Proteaceae) from Central Brazil.

A new species of Roupala, Roupala gertii from the endangered Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil is described and illustrated.

Species survival and carbon retention in commercially exploited tropical rainforest.

Since deforestation is one of the sources of carbon dioxide increase in the atmosphere, any measures that prevent or reduce the amount of forest removal are beneficial to the environment and to conservation of biodiversity. In recent years, there has been considerable research on the value of standing forests and many researchers have promoted the management of tropical forests as the best type of land use. On the other hand, the enormous diversity is a serious obstacle to management and use of tropical rainforest. A single hectare of forest can have up to 306 species of trees of 10 cm diameter or more. Here we present a brief review of some of the research and programmes that have tried to promote the use and conservation of tropical forest without clear felling. The sustainable use of the standing forest has usually been promoted as a means of species conservation; however, it is also a way to maintain the carbon fixed in the ecosystem. Here we review some of the pros and cons of extraction of non-timber forest products.

Changes in the use and management of forests for abating carbon emissions: issues and challenges under the Kyoto Protocol.

The global carbon cycle is significantly influenced by changes in the use and management of forests and agriculture. Humans have the potential through changes in land use and management to alter the magnitude of forest-carbon stocks and the direction of forest-carbon fluxes. However, controversy over the use of biological means to absorb or reduce emissions of CO(2) (often referred to as carbon 'sinks') has arisen in the context of the Kyoto Protocol. The controversy is based primarily on two arguments: sinks may allow developed nations to delay or avoid actions to reduce fossil fuel emissions, and the technical and operational difficulties are too threatening to the successful implementation of land use and forestry projects for providing carbon offsets. Here we discuss the importance of including carbon sinks in efforts to address global warming and the consequent additional social, environmental and economic benefits to host countries. Activities in tropical forest lands provide the lowest cost methods both of reducing emissions and reducing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. We conclude that the various objections raised as to the inclusion of carbon sinks to ameliorate climate change can be addressed by existing techniques and technology. Carbon sinks provide a practical available method of achieving meaningful reductions in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide while at the same time contribute to national sustainable development goals.

New taxa of amazonian chrysobalanaceae

SUMMARY Five new taxa of Amazonian Chrysobalanaceae are described based on recently collected material: Couepia cidiana Prance, Hirtella radamii Prance, Licania heteromorpha Benth. var. revoluta Prance, Licania miltonii Prance, and Licania tocantina Prance. The continued collection of many undescribed taxa indicates that there is still much to be done in the basic botanical inventory of Amazonia.

Resumo Cinco taxa de Chrysobalanaceae da Amazônia são descritos como novos: Couepia cidiana Prance, Hirtella radamii Prance, Licania heteromorpha Benth. var. revoluta Prance, Licania miltonii Prance e Licania tocantina Prance. São baseados em material recentemente coletado na terra firme da Amazônia Brasileira. A continuação da coleção de tantas espécies novas mostra que ainda falta muito para se completar o inventário básico da flora amazônica. Este trabalho é uma continuação da atualização da monografia de Chrysobalanaceae publicado em Flora Neotrópica em 1972.

Observations on the pollination of Rhabdodendron macrophyllum (Spruce ex Benth.) Huber

The species Rhabdodendron macrophyllum (Spr. ex Benth.) Hub. (Rhabdondendraceae) was observed in order to determine its pollination mechanism. Although it flowers around the year, there are flowering peaks when it is visited by several species of pollen-gathering bees. The principal floral visitors are two species of trigonid bees and one Melipona. The Melipona and one other visitor used the buzz method to extract pollen from the longitudinally dehiscent anthers. The trigonid bees collected pollen without buzzing. The flowers open around 6:00 a.m. and are available to the bess until about 10:30 a.m. Pollinator exclusion experiments showed that this species sets fruit equally by self fertilization.

A espécie Rhabdodendron macrophyllum (Spr. ex Benth.) Huber (Rhabdodendraceae) foi observada a fim de se determinar o seu mecanismo de polinização. Ela floresce durante o ano inteiro, porém, a época de maior floração é na estação chuvosa. Neste período de máxima floração, ela é visitada por diversas espécies de abelhas que coletam pólen. Os principais visitantes são duas espécies de Trigonini e uma do gênero Melipona. A Melipona e uma espécie rara, e maior, usam o método de vibração para extrair o pólen das anteras rimosas. As abelhas Trigonini colecionam pólen sem vibrar. Apesar de ser menos numerosa a Melipona é o agente polinizador mais eficiente. Ela visita mais flores por minuto, e mais plantas por minuto do que as Trigonini, e fica mais coberta com pólen devido à técnica vibratória de coleta de pólen. As flores de R. macrophyllum se abrem as 06:00 horas e estão disponíveis aos polinizadores até mais ou menos 10:30, quando murcham e as anteras começam a cair. Experimentos para excluir os insetos dessa possibilidade mostraram que a planta pode ser autofecundada porque havia igual número de frutos na inflorescência sem polinizadores.

Inventário florístico de floresta natural na área da estrada Cuiabá-Porto Velho (BR - 364)

Forest inventories were made on terra £firme within the area f human influence along the Cuiabá-Porto Velho Highway (BR-364)in the state f Rondônia. One transect measuring 10 x 1000m was located in the municipality oi Jam, branch road 605. Two transects, each measuring 10 x 2000m, were done at Projeto Machadinho, branch roads MC-2and MA-9. The forest is of medium height and has a total 278different species represented by 2.235 individuals and 57 families in the six hectares. Hectares I and II, at Jaru, have a floristic diversity of 113 and 136species of 10cm or more diameter (DBH). Hectares III,IV, V and VI at Projeto Machadinho have, respectively, 103,115, 122and 121tree species of 10cm or more DBH.The most important species found in hectare I is breu manga (Tetragastris altissima(Aubl.) Swartz), with an IV of 12.07 (4,0% of total IV); in hectare II, muiraquatiara(Astronium lecointeiDucke),with and IV of 28.94 (9,6%of total IV); in hectare III, Macrolobiumsp., with an IV of 28.94 (9,6%of total IV); in hectare IV, pan d'alho (Gallesia integrifolia(Spreng.) Harms), ith and IV of 39.41 (13,1%of total IV); in hectare V, tauari (Couratari macrosperma.A. C. Smith), with an IV of 11.32 (3,8%of total IV); in hectare VI, violeta (Peltogyne catingae Ducke subsp. glabra (W. Rock. ) M. F. da Silva), with an IV of 11.68 (3,9%of total IV).The six most important families in order of importance are Leguminosae, Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Lecythidaceae, Burseraceae and Palmae.The quantitative data on natural regeneration show that those species with the greatest number, oi regenerating individuals were: Duguetia flagellaresHuber and Maquirasp. in the Municipio oi Jaru and Coussareasp. and Micrandra.sp in the area of Projeto Machadinho, em Ariquemes.

Foi feito um inventário de seis hectares de floresta de. terra firme na área de influência da Estrada Cuiabá-Porto Velho (BR-364). Destes seis hectares, dois foram feitos no Município de Jaru, vicinal 605 e quatro na área do Projeto Machadinho, vicinais MC-2, MA-9. A flonesta apresenta uma altura média de 15m e um total de 278 espécies diferentes, representadas por 2.235 indivíduos e 57 famílias nos seis hectares estudados. Os hectares I e II do Município de Jaru apresentaram, respectivamente, uma diversidade florística de 113 e 136 espécies de 10cm ou mais de diâmetro (DAP), enquanto que os hectares III, IV, V e VI da área do Projeto Machadinho apresentaram respectivamente, 103, 115, 122 e. 121 espécies. A espécie mais importante no hectare I é o breu manga (Tetragastris altíssima (Aubl.) Swartz) com o IVI (Índice de Valor de Importância) de 12,07, o que representa 4,0%do total; no hectare II, muiraquatiara (Astronium lecointelDucke) com o IVI 28,94, ou se,ja 9,6% do total; no hectare III, Macrolobiumsp., com o IVI de 28,94, representando 9,6% do total; no hectare IV, pau d'alho (Gallesia integrifolia(Sprenq.) Harms), com IVI de 39,41, representando 13,1% do total; no hectare V, tauari (Couratari macrospermaA.S. Smith), com IVI de 11,32, ou seja, 3,8% do total; no hectare VI, violeta Peltogyne catingae Ducke subsp. glabra(W. Rodr.) M.F. da Silva), com o IVI de 11,68, representando 3,9% do total. As seis famílias mais importantes em ordem de importância são: Leguminosae, Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Lecythidaceae, Bursenaceae e Pal mae. Os dados quantitativos da regeneração natural indicaram que as espécies que apre-sentaram maior número de indivíduos regenerando, foram: Duguetia flagellaresHuber e Maquirasp. no Município de Jaru e Coussareasp. e. Micrandrasp. na área do Projeto Macha dinho, em Ariquemes.

Projeto Flora Amazônica: eight years of binational botanical expeditions

A review of the history and results of the first eight years of fieldwork of Projeto Flora Amazônica is given. This binational plant collecting program, sponsored by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and the National Science Foundation, has mounted 25 expeditions to many parts of Brazilian Amazonia. Expeditions have visited both areas threatened with destruction of the forest and remote areas previously unknown botanically. The results have included the collection of 32,976 members of vascular plants, 16, 482 of cryptogams, as well as quantitative inventory of 18.67 hectares of forest with the collection of 7,294*** numbers of sterile vouncher collections. The non-inventory collections have been made in replicate sets of 10-13 where possible and divided equally between Brazilian and U.S. institutions. To date, 55 botanists from many different institutions and with many different specialities have taken part with 36 different Brazilian botanists. The resulting herbarioum material is just beginning to be worked up and many nem species have been collected as well as many interesting range extensions and extra material of many rare species.

Apresentamos um histórico e resultados dos primeiros oito anos de pesquisas do Projeto Flora Amazônica. Este programa binacional de coleta de plantas amazônicas patrocinado pelo CNPq e o National Science Foundation, possibilitou 25expedições em numerosas regiões da Amazônia brasileira. As expedições visitaram tanto áreas ameaçadas de desmatamento extensivo, como áreas longínquas pouco conhecidas botanicamente. Os resultados incluem a coleta de 32.976 números de plantas superiores, 16.482 criptó_ gamas e inventário quantitativo de 18,67 hectares de floresta, envolvendo a coleta de 7.294 exsicatas estéreis. As coletas feitas para herborização foram realizadas com 10 a 13 duplicatas, quando possível, e divididas igualmente entre instituições brasileiras e dos EUA. Até o final de 1984 tomaram parte 55botânicos convidados de diversas instituições estrangeiras em diversas áreas, de especialização, junto com 36 botânicos brasileiros. 0 material coletado está na fase inicial de identificação e estudo pelos especialistas. Entretanto, muitas espécies novas e novos registros geográficos já foram reconhecidos, e novo material de espécies tidas como raras está sendo incorporado nos acervos dos herbários.

Preliminary results of a large-scale tree inventory of upland rain forest in the central amazon

A large-scale inventory of trees > 10cm DBH was conducted in the upland "terra firme" rain forest of the Distrito Agropecuário da SUFRAMA (Manaus Free Zone Authority Agricultural District) approximately 65Km north of the city of Manaus (AM), Srasil. Thegeneral appearance and structure of the forest is described together with local topography and soil texture. Thepreliminary results of the Inventory provide a minimum estimate of 698 tree species in 53 families in the 40Km radius sampled, including 17 undescribed species. Themost numerically abundant families, Lecythidaceae, Leguminosae, 5apotaceae and Burseraceae as also among the most species rich families. One aspect of this diverse assemblage is the proliferation of species within certain genera, Including 26 genera In 17 families with 6 or more species or morphospecies. Most species have very low abundances of less than 1 tree per hectare. While more abundant species do exist at densities ranging up to a mean of 12 trees per ha, many have clumped distributions leading to great variation in local species abundance. The degree of similarity between hectare samples based int the Coefficient of Community similarity Index varies widely over different sample hectares for five ecologically different families. Soil texture apparently plays a significant role In determining species composition in the different one hectare plots examined while results for other variable were less consistent. Greater differences in similarity indices are found for comparisons with a one hectare sample within the same formation approximately 40Km to the south. It is concluded that homogeneity of tree community composition within this single large and diverse yet continuous upland forest formation can not be assumed.

Um inventário florestal das árvores > 10 cm DAP foi realizado na floresta tropical da terra firme do Distrito Agropecuário da SUFRAMA, 65 km ao norte da cidade de Manaus (AM), Brasil A fisionomia gerai e a estrutura da floresta são descritas junto com a topografia e textura do solo. Os resultados preliminares do inventano acusam um mínimo de 698 espécies de árvores em 53 famílias, no raio de 40 km amostrado, incluindo 17 espécies novas para a ciência. As famílias numericamente mais abundantes são as Lecythidaceae, Leguminosae, Sapotaceae e Burseraceae, que são também as mais ricas em espécies. Um aspecto interessante desta floresta é a proliferação de espécies dentro de certos gêneros, chegando a ser 26 em 17 famílias com 6 ou mais espécies ou morfoespécles. A maioria das espécies tem densidade inferior a 1 árvore por hectare. Enquanto que existe espécies com densidade que chega até 12 árvores por hectare em média, muitas têm distribuições agrupadas dando como resultado uma grande variação na densidade local. O grau de similaridade entre hectares amostrados usando como índice a Coeficiência de Comunidade varia muito para 5 famílias ecologicamente diferentes. A textura do solo tem um papel importante na similaridade de composição de espécies, mas, outras variáveis não tem um resposta tão coerente. As diferenças são ainda mais pronunciadas para comparações com um inventário realizado na mesma comunidade 40 km ao sul. Conclulndo-se que, apesar de ela ser contínua, não pode presupor que existe nesta comunidade diversa e de grande dimensão uma homogeneidade na distribuição de espécies de árvores.