Impact of reduced water consumption on sulfide and methane production in rising main sewers.

Reduced water consumption (RWC), for water conservation purposes, is expected to change the wastewater composition and flow conditions in sewer networks and affect the in-sewer transformation processes. In this study, the impact of reduced water consumption on sulfide and methane production in rising main sewers was investigated. Two lab-scale rising main sewer systems fed with wastewater of different strength and flow rates were operated to mimic sewers under normal and RWC conditions (water consumption reduced by 40%). Sulfide concentration under the RWC condition increased by 0.7-8.0 mg-S/L, depending on the time of a day. Batch test results showed that the RWC did not change the sulfate-reducing activity of sewer biofilms, the increased sulfide production being mainly due to longer hydraulic retention time (HRT). pH in the RWC system was about 0.2 units lower than that in the normal system, indicating that more sulfide would be in molecular form under the RWC condition, which would result in increased sulfide emission to the atmosphere as confirmed by the model simulation. Model based analysis showed that the cost for chemical dosage for sulfide mitigation would increase significantly per unit volume of sewage, although the total cost would decrease due to a lower sewage flow. The dissolved methane concentration under the RWC condition was over two times higher than that under the normal flow condition and the total methane discharge was about 1.5 times higher, which would potentially result in higher greenhouse gas emissions. Batch tests showed that the methanogenic activity of sewer biofilms increased under the RWC condition, which along with the longer HRT, led to increased methane production.

Stratified microbial structure and activity in sulfide- and methane-producing anaerobic sewer biofilms.

Simultaneous production of sulfide and methane by anaerobic sewer biofilms has recently been observed, suggesting that sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and methanogenic archaea (MA), microorganisms known to compete for the same substrates, can coexist in this environment. This study investigated the community structures and activities of SRB and MA in anaerobic sewer biofilms (average thickness of 800 µm) using a combination of microelectrode measurements, molecular techniques, and mathematical modeling. It was seen that sulfide was mainly produced in the outer layer of the biofilm, between the depths of 0 and 300 µm, which is in good agreement with the distribution of SRB population as revealed by cryosection-fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). SRB had a higher relative abundance of 20% on the surface layer, which decreased gradually to below 3% at a depth of 400 µm. In contrast, MA mainly inhabited the inner layer of the biofilm. Their relative abundances increased from 10% to 75% at depths of 200 µm and 700 µm, respectively, from the biofilm surface layer. High-throughput pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA amplicons showed that SRB in the biofilm were mainly affiliated with five genera, Desulfobulbus, Desulfomicrobium, Desulfovibrio, Desulfatiferula, and Desulforegula, while about 90% of the MA population belonged to the genus Methanosaeta. The spatial organizations of SRB and MA revealed by pyrosequencing were consistent with the FISH results. A biofilm model was constructed to simulate the SRB and MA distributions in the anaerobic sewer biofilm. The good fit between model predictions and the experimental data indicate that the coexistence and spatial structure of SRB and MA in the biofilm resulted from the microbial types and their metabolic transformations and interactions with substrates.

Controlling chemical dosing for sulfide mitigation in sewer networks using a hybrid automata control strategy.

Chemicals such as magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and iron salts are widely used to control sulfide-induced corrosion in sewer networks composed of interconnected sewer pipe lines and pumping stations. Chemical dosing control is usually non-automatic and based on experience, thus often resulting in sewage reaching the discharge point receiving inadequate or even no chemical dosing. Moreover, intermittent operation of pumping stations makes traditional control theory inadequate. A hybrid automata-based (HA-based) control method is proposed in this paper to coordinate sewage pumping station operations by considering their states, thereby ensuring suitable chemical concentrations in the network discharge. The performance of the proposed control method was validated through a simulation study of a real sewer network using real sewage flow data. The physical, chemical and biological processes were simulated using the well-established SeweX model. The results suggested that the HA-based control strategy significantly improved chemical dosing control performance and sulfide mitigation in sewer networks, compared to the current common practice.

Establishing boundary conditions in sewer pipe/soil heat transfer modelling using physics-informed learning.

Modelling heat transfer in sewers and the surrounding soil is important for effective sewer maintenance, and for heat recovery from wastewater. The boundary conditions, including both the thickness of the soil layer to be modelled and the temperature distribution around the boundary of the soil layer, directly determine both the efficiency and accuracy of the models. Yet there is no systematic method to establish these conditions. This study presents a novel and generic approach to establishing efficient boundary conditions for sewer heat transfer modelling. Fourier transform is applied to identify the dominant frequencies of the temperatures of the heat sources/sinks, namely the atmosphere, sewer air and wastewater. A simple data-driven model for determining the thickness of the soil-layer to be included, and three physics-informed models for predicting the temperatures at the soil-layer boundary are then learnt from mechanistic models for sewer heat transfer, taking into consideration the frequency spectra. The methodology achieved high fidelity to the mechanistic models in predicting the soil-layer boundary temperatures and sewer wall temperatures for real-life sewers. This approach offers an easy yet reliable way to obtain efficient boundary conditions that significantly improve both the accuracy and speed of sewer heat transfer modelling.

Hydrogen sulfide control in sewer systems: A critical review of recent progress.

In sewer systems where anaerobic conditions are present, sulfate-reducing bacteria reduce sulfate to hydrogen sulfide (H2S), leading to sewer corrosion and odor emission. Various sulfide/corrosion control strategies have been proposed, demonstrated, and optimized in the past decades. These included (1) chemical addition to sewage to reduce sulfide formation, to remove dissolved sulfide after its formation, or to reduce H2S emission from sewage to sewer air, (2) ventilation to reduce the H2S and humidity levels in sewer air, and (3) amendments of pipe materials/surfaces to retard corrosion. This work aims to comprehensively review both the commonly used sulfide control measures and the emerging technologies, and to shed light on their underlying mechanisms. The optimal use of the above-stated strategies is also analyzed and discussed in depth. The key knowledge gaps and major challenges associated with these control strategies are identified and strategies dealing with these gaps and challenges are recommended. Finally, we emphasize a holistic approach to sulfide control by managing sewer networks as an integral part of an urban water system.

Swift hydraulic models for real-time control applications in sewer networks.

Real-time control (RTC) is an important tool for safe and cost-effective operations of sewer systems by, for example, reducing sewer overflow or enhancing sulfide mitigation. Due to the long transport time of sewage and the inherent dynamics in sewage flow rates, model-predictive control is often needed, which requires the prediction of sewage hydraulic characteristics across the network. The full hydraulic models are often unsuitable for such purposes due to their high computational demands, which are not affordable as the models need to be called for numerous times in each optimisation step. In this study, two swift, data-driven hydraulic models are developed to predict sewage flow rates in gravity sewers receiving feeds from rising main(s) and gravity main(s), respectively. The models are shown to be able to predict both the sewage flow rate and the cross-sectional flow area in high fidelities with solutions of Saint-Venant Equations, but reduce the computational time by up to four orders of magnitude. The swift hydraulic models were then integrated into an RTC strategy for NaOH dosing in a simulated real-life sewer network, and achieved cost-effective control of sulfide. These models could potentially be used for other sewer RTC applications.

Evaluation of continuous and intermittent trickling strategies for the removal of hydrogen sulfide in a biotrickling filter.

Biotrickling filter (BTF) is a widely applied bioreactor for odour abatement in sewer networks. The trickling strategy is vital for maintaining a sound operation of BTF. This study employed a lab-scale BTF packed with granular activated carbon at a short empty bed residence time of 6 s and pH 1-2 to evaluate different trickling strategies, i.e., continuous trickling (different velocities) and intermittent trickling (different trickling intervals), in terms of the removal of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), bed pressure drop, H2S oxidation products and microbial community. The H2S removal performance decreased with the trickling velocity (∼3.6 m/h) in BTF. In addition, three intermittent trickling strategies, i.e., 10-min trickling per 24 h, 8 h, and 2 h, were investigated. The H2S elimination capacity deteriorated after about 2 weeks under both 10-min trickling per 24 h and 8 h. For both intermittent (10-min trickling per 2 h) and continuous trickling, the BTF exhibited nearly 100 % H2S removal for inlet H2S concentrations<100 ppmv, but intermittent BTF showed better removal performance than continuous trickling when inlet H2S increased to 120-190 ppmv. Furthermore, the bed pressure drops were 333 and 3888 Pa/m for non-trickling and trickling periods, respectively, which makes intermittent BTF save 83 % energy consumption of the blower compared with continuous tirckling. However, intermittent BTF exhibited transient H2S breakthrough (<1 ppmv) during trickling periods. Moreover, elemental sulfur and sulfate were major products of H2S oxidation and Acidithiobacillus was the dominant genus in both intermittent and continuous trickling BTF. A mathematical model was calibrated for the intermittent BTF and a sensitivity analysis was performed on the model. It shows mass transfer parameters determine the H2S removal. Overall, intermittent trickling strategy is promising for improving odour abatement performance and reducing the operating cost of the BTF.

SCORe-CT: a new method for testing effectiveness of sulfide-control chemicals used in sewer systems.

A new method for testing the effectiveness of chemical products for sulfide control in sewers is reported. The method, called SCORe-CT (Sewer Corrosion and Odour Research - Chemical Testing), consists of two specially designed laboratory-scale systems that mimic sulfide production in real rising main sewers, and a multi-phase and multi-facet testing protocol. The monitoring tools/methods include both routine chemical analysis of various sulfurous and carbonaceous compounds in liquid and their on-line monitoring using advanced sensors. Molecular methods and microelectrodes can also be employed to examine the microbial structure and activity of sewer biofilms. The SCORe-CT method is not proposed to replace field trials but to screen chemicals prior to their often costly trials/applications in field conditions. For effective chemicals the method helps to reveal the mechanisms involved, and assists with the design of optimal dosage strategies, which would significantly reduce application costs. In this paper, the method is explained in detail and demonstrated with several case studies.

A laboratory assessment of the impact of brewery wastewater discharge on sulfide and methane production in a sewer.

The impact of brewery wastewater discharge on sulfide and methane production in a sewer was assessed. Experiments were carried out on laboratory scale sewer reactors consisting of both an experimental and a control reactor. The control reactor was intermittently fed with real fresh sewage while the experimental reactor was fed with a mixture of brewery and domestic wastewater at two different proportions (10 and 25% v/v). 10% v/v discharge of brewery wastewater increased the H2S and CH4 production rates in the sewer reactor by 40% and 30%, respectively. When the brewery wastewater fraction was increased to 25% v/v, the H2S production rate of the experimental reactor decreased to the level of the control reactor. In contrast, the CH4 production rate maintained at a level that was 30% higher than that in the control reactor. These results indicate that the discharge of brewery wastewater into sewers can give negative impacts in relation to odour and corrosion management of the systems and will increase the greenhouse gas emissions from sewers. The study also reveals that the impact of trade waste on the biological reactions in sewers is complex, and requires careful experimental assessment in each case.

The impact of primary sedimentation on the use of iron-rich drinking water sludge on the urban wastewater system.

The impact of primary sedimentation on the multiple use of iron in an urban wastewater system was investigated. Our previous work showed that in-sewer iron-rich drinking water sludge (DWS) dosing exhibited multiple benefits in the downstream processes. However, the system studied did not include a primary settler. We hypothesised that primary sedimentation could significantly change the characteristics of the wastewater flowing to the bioreactor, particularly its particulate components. This could in turn influence the availability of iron for phosphate removal from wastewater and/or sulfide removal in the anaerobic sludge digester. Long-term (~4 months) experiments were carried out on two laboratory-scale wastewater systems, each comprising sewers reactors, a primary sedimentation tank, a wastewater treatment reactor, and an anaerobic sludge digester. It was found the majority (85%) of the Fe contained in the sewer effluent was present in the primary sludge with the remaining (15%) staying in the primary effluent. This significantly affected the flow-on effect of Fe on the phosphate removal during wastewater treatment, removing only 1.2 ± 0.1 mgP L-1, as compared to 3.5 ± 0.1 mgP L-1 achieved previously in the absence of a primary settler. However, the P to Fe removal ratio was 0.32 mgP/mgFe, similar to the ratio observed previously without primary sedimentation (0.36 mgP/mgFe). The dissolved sulfide removal in the anaerobic digester was 2.7 ± 0.5 mgS L-1, substantially lower than 7.2 ± 0.3 mgS L-1 previously attained without primary sedimentation. This suggests that Fe in the primary sludge was not completely available for dissolved sulfide removal in the digester. However, the dewaterability of the anaerobically digested sludge improved with a relative increase of 25.0 ± 0.9%, compared to the 21.7 ± 0.6%, previously observed without primary sedimentation. The results demonstrated that primary sedimentation reduced the effectiveness to deliver the benefits of the in-sewer DWS dosing strategy, but the results are still favourable.

Revealing the variations in physicochemical, morphological, fractal, and rheological properties of digestate during the mesophilic anaerobic digestion of iron-rich waste activated sludge.

Dosing of iron (Fe)-salts in sewers to control odour and corrosion problems have proven to be effective on phosphate and sulfide removal in downstream treatment units. However, the interaction of Fe with sludge may impact the sludge properties during wastewater treatment and sludge digestion. Herein, we investigated the downstream impacts of sewer-dosed Fe-salt on key digestate properties including digestate dewaterability. For this, Fe-salt was dosed to a sewer reactor and resultant iron-rich waste activated sludge (Fe-WAS) was digested in an anaerobic digester (AD) in the experimental line of integrated laboratory system running in parallel to a control system. Iron containing and non-iron containing digestates were sourced from the respective AD reactors of experimental and control lines. Results showed improved dewaterability in iron containing digestate than non-iron containing digestate, which was attributed to the variations in key digestate properties. Compared to non-iron containing digestate, iron containing digestate exhibited the decreased contents of bound water, soluble extracellular polymeric substances (S-EPS), protein, polysaccharide, and monovalent-to-divalent (M+/D++) cations ratio. Likewise, we observed the increased mean particle size (Dv50) for iron containing digestate than the non-iron containing digestate, but fractal dimension (Df) values were comparable. Besides, iron containing digestate exhibited a reduced degree of thixotropy, relative sludge network strength, viscosity, yield stress, flow stress, and storage/loss/complex (G'/G''/G∗) moduli but increased creep compliance and shear strain (%) than non-iron containing digestate. The combined synergistic effects of such favorable changes amongst the key properties of iron containing digestate, might have been responsible for improving it's dewaterability.

Effects of in-sewer dosing of iron-rich drinking water sludge on wastewater collection and treatment systems.

The use of coagulants and flocculants in the water and wastewater industry is predicted to increase further in the coming years. Alum is the most widely used coagulant, however, the use of ferric chloride (FeCl3) is gaining popularity. Drinking water production that uses FeCl3 as coagulant produces waste sludge rich in iron. We hypothesised that the iron-rich drinking water sludge (DWS) can potentially be used in the urban wastewater system to reduce dissolved sulfide in sewer systems, aid phosphate removal in wastewater treatment and reduce hydrogen sulfide in the anaerobic digester biogas. This hypothesis was investigated using two laboratory-scale urban wastewater systems, one as an experimental system and the other as a control, each comprising sewer reactors, a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) for wastewater treatment, sludge thickeners and anaerobic digestion reactors. Both were fed with domestic wastewater. The experimental system received in-sewer DWS-dosing at 10 mgFe L-1 while the control had none. The sulfide concentration in the experimental sewer effluent decreased by 3.5 ± 0.2 mgS L-1 as compared with the control, while the phosphate concentration decreased by 3.6 ± 0.3 mgP L-1 after biological wastewater treatment in the experimental SBR. The dissolved sulfide concentration in the experimental anaerobic digester also decreased by 15.9 ± 0.9 mgS L-1 following the DWS-dosing to the sewer reactors. The DWS-doing also enhanced the settleability of the mixed liquor suspended sludge (MLSS) (SVI decreased from 193.2 ± 22.2 to 108.0 ± 7.7 ml g-1), and the dewaterability of the anaerobically digested sludge (the cake solids concentration increased from 15.7 ± 0.3% to 19.1 ± 1.8%). The introduction of DWS into the experimental system significantly increased the COD and TSS concentrations in the wastewater, and consequently the MLSS concentration in the SBR, however, this did not affect normal operation. The results demonstrated that iron-rich waste sludge from drinking water production can be used in the urban wastewater system achieving multiple benefits. Therefore, an integrated approach to urban water and wastewater management should be considered to maximise the benefits of iron use in the system.

Assessing the removal of organic micropollutants from wastewater by discharging drinking water sludge to sewers.

Discharging drinking water treatment sludge (DWTS) to sewers could be an efficient waste management strategy with the potential to replace chemical dosing for pollutant control. This study for the first time investigated the fate of 28 different organic micropollutants (MPs) due to the dosing of iron-rich and aluminum-rich DWTS in a pilot rising main sewer. Nine MPs had an initial rapid removal within 1-hr (i.e., 10-80%) due to Fe-DWTS dosing. The formation of FeS particles due to Fe-DWTS dosing was responsible for the removal of dissolved sulfides (80% reduction comparing to control sewer). Further particle characterization using SEM-EDS, XRD and ATR-FTIR confirmed that FeS particles formation played an important role in the removal of MPs from wastewater. Adsorption of MPs onto the FeS particles was likely the possible mechanism for their rapid removal. In comparison to iron-rich DWTS, aluminum-rich DWTS had very limited beneficial effects in removing MPs from wastewater. The degradability of degradable MPs, including caffeine, paraxanthine, paracetamol, metformin, cyclamate, cephalexin, and MIAA were not affected by the DWTS dosing. Some non-degradable MPs, including cotinine, hydroxycotinine, tramadol, gabapentin, desvenlafaxine, hydrochlorothiazide, carbamazepine, fluconazole, sulfamethoxazole, acesulfame, saccharin and sucralose were also not impacted by the DWTS dosing. This study systematically assessed the additional benefits of discharging Fe-DWTS to the sewer network i.e., the removal of MPs from the liquid phase thereby reducing its load to the treatment plant. The results corroborate the discharge of Fe-rich DWTS in sewers as an effective and beneficial way of managing the waste by-product.

Development of a model for assessing methane formation in rising main sewers.

Significant methane formation in sewers has been reported recently, which may contribute significantly to the overall greenhouse gas emission from wastewater systems. The understanding of the biological conversions occurring in sewers, particularly the competition between methanogenic and sulfate-reducing populations for electron donors, is an essential step for minimising methane emissions from sewers. This work proposes an extension to the current state-of-the-art models characterising biological and physicochemical processes in sewers. This extended model includes the competitive interactions of sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogenic archaea in sewers for various substrates available. The most relevant parameters of the model were calibrated with lab-scale experimental data. The calibrated model described field data reasonably well. The model was then used to investigate the effect of several key sewer design and operational parameters on methane formation. The simulation results showed that methane production was highly correlated with the hydraulic residence time (HRT) and pipe area to volume (A/V) ratio showing higher methane concentrations at a long HRT or a larger A/V ratio.

Effects of long-term pH elevation on the sulfate-reducing and methanogenic activities of anaerobic sewer biofilms.

The dosage of alkali is often applied by the wastewater industry to reduce the transfer of hydrogen sulfide from wastewater to the sewer atmosphere. In this paper the activities of Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) and Methanogenic Archaea (MA) under elevated pH conditions (8.6 and 9.0) were evaluated in a laboratory scale anaerobic sewer reactor. Compared to those in a control reactor without pH control (pH 7.6+/-0.1), the SRB activity was reduced by 30% and 50%, respectively, at pH 8.6 and pH 9.0. When normal pH was resumed, it took approximately 1 month for the SRB activity to fully recover. Methanogenic activities developed in the control reactor in 3 months after the reactor start-up, while no significant methanogenic activities were detected in the experimental reactor until normal pH was resumed. The results suggest that elevated pH at 8.6-9.0 suppressed the growth of methanogens. These experimental results clearly showed that, in addition to its well-known effect of reducing H(2)S transfer from the liquid to the gas phase, pH elevation considerably reduces sulfide and methane production by anaerobic sewer biofilms. These findings are significant for the optimal use of alkali addition to sewers for the control of H(2)S and CH(4) emissions. A model-based study showed that, by adding the alkali at the beginning rather than towards the end of a rising main, substantial savings in chemicals can be achieved while achieving the same level of sulfide emission control, and complete methane emission control.

Variation in biofilm structure and activity along the length of a rising main sewer.

Sewers systems are dynamic in nature, with periodic variation of hydraulic flow and wastewater substrate concentrations. While various models are currently available for predicting hydrogen sulfide (H2S) production in rising mains, they assume constant biofilm activities along the length and ignore the effect of substrate availability on biofilm development. To investigate variation in rising main biofilm structure and activity, detailed studies were carried out on a Robbins device setup, which was established in parallel to a real rising main that it simulated. The changes in wastewater characteristics, as wastewater traveled through both the experimental setup and the real sewer system, were monitored. The study revealed that the biofilm activities varied significantly with locations, with biofilm corresponding to the start of the rising main capable of greater sulfide and volatile fatty acid production than biofilm downstream. Analysis of microbial community composition of these biofilms showed a difference in diversity and abundance, both with regard to general bacterial populations and sulfate reducers. These differences were hypothesized to be a consequence of varying substrate types and availability along the sewer line. The results suggest that the biofilm structure and activity may vary considerably along the length of rising mains and should be taken into consideration for improved sewer modeling and when considering the overall effect of different hydrogen sulfide management options.

Real-time prediction of rain-impacted sewage flow for on-line control of chemical dosing in sewers.

Chemical dosing is a commonly used strategy for mitigating sewer corrosion and odour problems caused by sulfide production. Prediction of sewage flow variation in real-time is critical for the optimization of chemical dosing to achieve cost-effective mitigation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Autoregressive (AR) models have previously been used for real-time sewage prediction. However, the prediction showed significant delays in wet weather conditions. In this paper, autoregressive with exogenous inputs (ARX) models are employed to reduce the delays with rainfall data used as model inputs. The model is applied to predicting sewage flows at two real-life sewage pumping stations (SPSs) with different hydraulic characteristics and climatic conditions. The calibrated models were capable of predicting flow rates in both cases, much more accurately than previously developed AR models under wet weather conditions. Simulation of on-line chemical dosing control based on the predicted flows showed excellent sulfide mitigation performance at reduced cost.

Unravelling the influences of sewer-dosed iron salts on activated sludge properties with implications on settleability, dewaterability and sludge rheology.

Although the beneficial impacts of iron dosing to sewer on activated sludge unit's performance, especially in relation to phosphate removal, have been reported, the extent of impacts on different sludge properties affecting the operation and performance of the activated sludge unit are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the influences of iron salt dosing to sewer on both settleability and dewaterability of downstream activated sludge unit. We also examined, based on the comparative assessment of different key activated sludge properties, possible underlying factors responsible for the changes in sludge settleability and dewaterability. For this, iron chloride was dosed to a sewer reactor of integrated laboratory sewer-bioreactor system. The activated sludge samples were obtained from two separate reactors, an experimental sequencing batch reactor (SBR-E) downstream of sewer reactor receiving iron dosing and a control SBR (SBR-C) downstream of a sewer reactor without any iron dosing. Iron-conditioned sludge showed improved settleability and dewaterability over the unconditioned activated sludge. Mean differences in settleability and dewaterability between two sludges were 22.5 ±â€¯7.8 mL/g (p < 0.05) and 7.8 ±â€¯1.2% (p < 0.05), respectively. Iron-conditioned sludge showed lower contents of soluble extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) fractions, protein and polysaccharide contents, and monovalent-to-divalent (M+/D++) cations ratio, but higher humification index as compared to the unconditioned sludge. Iron-conditioned sludge exhibited marginal increment in mean particle size (Dv50) and settleable particle size classes (100-400 µm) but reduction in supracolloidal particle size classes (1-100 µm). In terms of sludge rheology, iron-conditioned sludge exhibited relatively lower relative sludge network strength, viscosity, yield stress, elastic/viscous/complex moduli (G'/G''/G*), and damping factor tan(δ) but increased shear compliance (J) and shear strain (%) with time.The iron-conditioned sludge therefore exhibited relatively weaker deformation resistance and sludge elasticity. Based on the foregoing results, we posit the combined synergistic effect of favourable changes to the key sludge properties, might be responsible for the observed improvement in settleability and dewaterability of iron-conditioned sludge.

Opportunities for reducing coagulants usage in urban water management: The Oxley Creek Sewage Collection and Treatment System as an example.

Iron and aluminium based coagulants are used in enormous amounts and play an essential role in urban water management globally. They are dosed at drinking water production facilities for the removal of natural organic matter. Iron salts are also dosed to sewers for corrosion and odour control, and at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for phosphate removal from wastewater and hydrogen sulfide removal from biogas. A recent laboratory study revealed that iron dosed to sewers is available for phosphate and hydrogen sulfide removal in the downstream WWTP. This study demonstrates for the first time under real-life conditions the practical feasibility and effectiveness of the strategy through a year-long full-scale investigation. Over a period of 5 months, alum dosing at ∼190 kg Al/day to the bioreactor in a full-scale WWTP was stopped, while FeCl2 dosing at ∼160 kg Fe/day in the upstream network was commenced. Extensive sampling campaigns were conducted over the baseline, trial and recovery periods to investigate sulfide control in sewers and its flow-on effects on phosphate in WWTP effluent, H2S in biogas, as well as on the WWTP effluent hypochlorite disinfection process. A plant-wide mass balance analysis showed that the Fe2+ dosed upstream was effectively used for P removal in the activated sludge tanks, with an effluent phosphate concentration comparable to that in the baseline period (i.e. with alum dosing to the bioreactor). Simultaneously, hydrogen sulfide concentration in biogas decreased ∼43%, from 495 ±â€¯10 to 283 ±â€¯4 ppm. No effects on biological nitrogen removal and disinfection processes were observed. Both effluent phosphate and H2S in biogas increased in the recovery period, when in-sewer dosing of FeCl2 was stopped. X-ray diffraction failed to reveal the presence of vivianite in the digested sludge, providing strong evidence that thermal hydrolysis prevented the formation of vivianite during anaerobic digestion. The latter limits the potential for selective recovery of Fe and P through magnetic separation. Overall, our study clearly demonstrates the multiple beneficial reuse of iron in a real urban wastewater system and urges water utilities to adopt an integrated approach to coagulant use in urban water management.

Dynamics and dynamic modelling of H2S production in sewer systems.

Accurate and reliable predictions of sulfide production in a sewer system greatly benefit formulation of appropriate strategies for optimal sewer management. Sewer systems, rising main systems in particular, are highly dynamic in terms of both flow and wastewater composition. In order to get an insight in sulfide production as a response to the dynamic changes in sewer conditions, several measurement campaigns were conducted in two rising mains in Gold Coast, Australia. The levels of various sulfur species and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) were monitored through hourly sampling for periods ranging from 8 to 29 h. The results of these field studies showed large temporal as well as spatial variations in sulfide generation. A dynamic sewer model taking into account the hydraulics and the biochemical transformation processes was formulated and calibrated and validated using the data collected during the four measurement campaigns at the two sites. The model was demonstrated to reasonably well describe the temporal and spatial variations in sulfide, sulfate and VFA concentrations. Application of the model was illustrated with a case study aimed to optimize oxygen injection to one of the two mains studied, which is being used as a means to control sulfide production on this site. The model predicted that, moving the current oxygen injection point to a location close to the end of the sewer line could achieve the same degree of sulfide control with only 50% of the current oxygen use. This study highlighted that the location at which oxygen is injected plays a major role in sulfide control and a dynamic model could be used to make a proper choice of the location.