Materials recovery from NMC batteries with water as the sole solvent.

We report an environmentally benign recycling approach for large-capacity nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) batteries through the electrochemical concentration of lithium on the anode and subsequent recovery with only water. Cycling of the NMC pouch cells indicated the potential for maximum lithium recovery at a 5C charging rate. The anodes extracted from discharged and disassembled cells were submerged in deionized water, resulting in lithium dissolution and graphite recovery from the copper foils. A maximum of 13 mg of lithium salts per 100 mg of the anode, copper current collector, and separator was obtained from NMC pouch cell cycled at a 4C charging rate. The lithium salts extracted from batteries cycled at low C-rates were richer in lithium carbonate, while the salts from batteries cycled at high C-rates were richer in lithium oxides and peroxides, as determined by X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The present method can be successfully used to recover all the pouch cell components: lithium, graphite, copper, and aluminum current collectors, separator, and the cathode active material.

Structurally Different Yet Functionally Similar: Aptamers Specific for the Ebola Virus Soluble Glycoprotein and GP1,2 and Their Application in Electrochemical Sensing.

The Ebola virus glycoprotein (GP) gene templates several mRNAs that produce either the virion-associated transmembrane protein or one of two secreted glycoproteins. Soluble glycoprotein (sGP) is the predominant product. GP1 and sGP share an amino terminal sequence of 295 amino acids but differ in quaternary structure, with GP1 being a heterohexamer with GP2 and sGP a homodimer. Two structurally different DNA aptamers were selected against sGP that also bound GP1,2. These DNA aptamers were compared with a 2'FY-RNA aptamer for their interactions with the Ebola GP gene products. The three aptamers have almost identical binding isotherms for sGP and GP1,2 in solution and on the virion. They demonstrated high affinity and selectivity for sGP and GP1,2. Furthermore, one aptamer, used as a sensing element in an electrochemical format, detected GP1,2 on pseudotyped virions and sGP with high sensitivity in the presence of serum, including from an Ebola-virus-infected monkey. Our results suggest that the aptamers interact with sGP across the interface between the monomers, which is different from the sites on the protein bound by most antibodies. The remarkable similarity in functional features of three structurally distinct aptamers suggests that aptamers, like antibodies, have preferred binding sites on proteins.

NK-lysin antimicrobial peptide-functionalized nanoporous alumina membranes as biosensors for label-free bacterial endotoxin detection.

We report an NK-lysin peptide-functionalized nanoporous anodized aluminum oxide (NAAO) based biosensor to detect bacterial endotoxin. Bovine NK-lysin-derived peptides show antimicrobial activity against bacterial pathogens, and bactericidal activity is primarily due to the membranolysis activity. Antimicrobial activity of NK-lysin NK2A was confirmed against a Gram-negative Mannheimia haemolytica and a Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus. Electron microscopic examination showed the localization of NK2A conjugated silver nanoparticles, but not unconjugated silver nanoparticles used as control, to the bacterial outer membrane and cell wall. NK2A functionalized NAAO membranes were used in a previously developed four-electrode electrochemical configuration to detect the presence of Gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and Gram-positive bacterial lipoteichoic acid (LTA) molecules. NK2A-functionalized NAAO biosensor could detect LPS with a detection limit of 10 ng/mL within an appreciable signal/noise ratio. Biosensors functionalized with a scrambled amino acid version of NK2A (Sc-NK2A) that lacks antimicrobial activity could not detect the presence of LPS. However, both NK2A and Sc-NK2A functionalized biosensors showed sensing signals with Gram-positive bacterial lipoteichoic acids. These results suggest that the specific binding of NK2A-LPS on the NAAO membrane surface is responsible for the observed biosensor signals. These findings suggest that NK2A-functionalized biosensors can be used for rapid and sensitive label-free LPS detection.

Multiscale Modeling Reveals the Cause of Surface Stress Change on Microcantilevers Due to Alkanethiol SAM Adsorption.

Experimental results show that the adsorption of the self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on a gold surface induces surface stress change that causes deformation of the underlying substrate. However, the exact mechanism of stress development is yet to be elucidated. In the present study, multiscale computational models based on molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are applied to study the mechanism governing surface stress change. Distinct mechanisms for adsorption-induced surface deformation, namely, interchain repulsion and thiol-gold interaction-driven gold surface reconstruction, are investigated. Two different interatomic potentials, embedded atom method and surface-embedded atom method (SEAM), are used in the MD simulations to study the reconstruction-induced surface stresses. Comparison of the predicted surface stress changes, resulting from MD and continuum mechanics-based models, with the observed experimental response indicates that a modified SEAM-based multiscale model can better capture the surface stress changes observed during alkanethiol SAM formation, and gold surface reconstruction is the primary factor behind the surface stress change. The interchain repulsions of SAM are found to have a minimal contribution. Also, both the simulations and experiments show that the surface stress change increases with the increase of surface coverage density and larger grain size.

Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Conformational Transition and Frictional Performance Modulation of Densely Packed Self-Assembled Monolayers Based on Electrostatic Stimulation.

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) terminated with functional end groups such as polyethylene glycols (PEG) have attracted considerable attention because of their unique and flexible structure that exhibits conformational transition under electrostatic stimulation. Molecular dynamics simulations are used to investigate the conformational transition and associated modulation of frictional performance of densely packed PEG-terminated SAMs subjected to electrical field stimulation. Previously reported empirical potentials and atomic charges were used to model the intrachain bonds and electrostatic and interchain interactions. Simulation results indicate that significant conformational transition is generated because of the electrostatic forces. Under positive electrical fields, PEG groups are compressed and twisted into the helical form, "gauche" state, whereas under negative electrical fields, PEG groups are stretched into the straight form, "all-trans" state. Such conformational transition may lead to substantial alteration of frictional response upon SAMs. By shallow penetration and sliding using a repulsive indenter, the SAMs under positive electrical fields exhibit a level of frictional response that is comparatively lower than those under zero and negative potentials, which may be attributed to reduced interchain space for deformation, limited conformational transition, and less energy absorption. The simulation results demonstrate that with appropriate selection of functional end groups attached to SAM backbone chains it is possible to modulate frictional performance of densely packed SAMs via electrostatic stimuli.

Dependence of ablative ability of high-intensity focused ultrasound cavitation-based histotripsy on mechanical properties of agar.

Cavitation-based histotripsy uses high-intensity focused ultrasound at low duty factor to create bubble clouds inside tissue to liquefy a region, and provides better fidelity to planned lesion coordinates and the ability to perform real-time monitoring. The goal of this study was to identify the most important mechanical properties for predicting lesion dimensions, among these three: Young's modulus, bending strength, and fracture toughness. Lesions were generated inside tissue-mimicking agar, and correlations were examined between the mechanical properties and the lesion dimensions, quantified by lesion volume and by the width and length of the equivalent bubble cluster. Histotripsy was applied to agar samples with varied properties. A cuboid of 4.5 mm width (lateral to focal plane) and 6 mm depth (along beam axis) was scanned in a raster pattern with respective step sizes of 0.75 and 3 mm. The exposure at each treatment location was either 15, 30, or 60 s. Results showed that only Young's modulus influenced histotripsy's ablative ability and was significantly correlated with lesion volume and bubble cluster dimensions. The other two properties had negligible effects on lesion formation. Also, exposure time differentially affected the width and depth of the bubble cluster volume.

Continuous Sampling of Aerosolized Particles Using Stratified Two-Phase Microfluidics.

Health and security concerns have made it essential to develop integrated, continuous collection and sensing platforms that are compact and capable of real-time detection. In this study, we numerically investigate the flow physics associated with the single-step collection and enrichment of aerosolized polystyrene microparticles into a flowing liquid using a stratified air-water flow in a U-shaped microchannel. We validate our simulation results by comparing them to experimental data from the literature. Additionally, we fabricate an identical microfluidic device using PDMS-based soft lithography and test it to corroborate the previously published experimental data. Diversion and entrapment efficiencies are used as evaluation metrics, both of which increase with increasing particle diameter and superficial air inlet velocity. Overall, our ANSYS Fluent two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) multiphase flow simulations exhibit a good agreement with our experimental data and data in the literature (average deviation of ∼11%) in terms of diversion efficiency. Simulations also found the entrapment efficiency to be lower than the diversion efficiency, indicating discrepancies in the literature in terms of captured particles. The effect of the Dean force on the flow physics was also investigated using 3D simulations. We found that the effect of the Dean flow was more dominant relative to the centrifugal force on the smaller particles (e.g., 0.65 µm) compared to the larger particles (e.g., 2.1 µm). Increasing the superficial air inlet velocity also increases the effect of the centrifugal forces relative to the Dean forces. Overall, this experimentally validated multiphase model decouples and investigates the multiple and simultaneous forces on aerosolized particles flowing through a curved microchannel, which is crucial for designing more efficient capture devices. Once integrated with a microfluidic-based biosensor, this stratified flow-based microfluidic biothreat capture platform should deliver continuous sensor-ready enriched biosamples for real-time sensing.

Pyoverdine binding aptamers and label-free electrochemical detection of pseudomonads.

Pyoverdines are iron-chelating siderophores employed by various pseudomonads to promote their growth in iron-limited environments, facilitating both beneficial and detrimental interactions with co-inhabiting microbes or hosts, including plants and animals. The fluorescent pseudomonads produce fluorescent pyoverdines comprised of a conserved central chromophore and a unique strain-specific peptidic side chain produced by non-ribosomal peptide synthetases. Pyoverdine Pf5 (PVD-Pf5) is produced by Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5, a species known for supporting plant growth and its involvement in plant pathogen control. To develop a means of exploring the dynamics of P. protegens activity in soil and in the rhizosphere, we selected DNA aptamers that specifically recognize PVD-Pf5 with high affinities. Two selected aptamers with only 16% identity in sequence were examined for structure and function. We found evidence that both aptamers form structures in their apo-forms and one aptamer has structural features suggesting the presence of a G-quadruplex. Although their tertiary structures are predicted to be different, both aptamers bind the target PVD-Pf5 with similar affinities and do not bind other siderophores, including the related pyoverdine, pseudobactin, produced by Pseudomonas sp. B10. One aptamer binds the pyoverdine peptide component and may also interact with the chromophore. This aptamer was integrated into a nanoporous aluminum oxide biosensor and demonstrated to successfully detect PVD-Pf5 and not to detect other siderophores that do not bind to the aptamer when evaluated in solution. This sensor provides a future opportunity to track the locations of P. protegens around plant roots and to monitor PVD-Pf5 production and movement through the soil.

An RNA aptamer-based microcantilever sensor to detect the inflammatory marker, mouse lipocalin-2.

Lipocalin-2 (Lcn2) is a biomarker for many inflammatory-based diseases, including acute kidney injury, cardiovascular stress, diabetes, and various cancers. Inflammatory transitions occur rapidly in kidney and cardiovascular disease, for which an in-line monitor could be beneficial. Microcantilever devices with aptamers as recognition elements can be effective and rapidly responsive sensors. Here, we have selected and characterized an RNA aptamer that specifically binds mouse Lcn2 (mLcn2) with a dissociation constant of 340 ± 70 nM in solution and 38 ± 22 nM when immobilized on a surface. The higher apparent affinity of the immobilized aptamer may result from its effective multivalency that decreases the off-rate. The aptamer competes with a catechol iron-siderophore, the natural ligand of mLcn2. This and the results of studies with mLcn2 mutants demonstrate that the aptamer binds to the siderophore binding pocket of the protein. A differential interferometer-based microcantilever sensor was developed with the aptamer as the recognition element in which the differential response between two adjacent cantilevers (a sensing/reference pair) is utilized to detect the binding between mLcn2 and the aptamer, ensuring that sensor response is independent of environmental influences, distance between sensing surface and detector and nonspecific binding. The system showed a detection limit of 4 nM. This novel microcantilever aptasensor has potential for development as an in-line monitoring system for mLcn2 in studies of animal models of acute diseases such as kidney and cardiac failure.

Impedance-Based Nanoporous Anodized Alumina/ITO Platforms for Label-Free Biosensors.

We report an experimental and computational approach for the fabrication and characterization of a highly sensitive and responsive label-free biosensor that does not require the presence of redox couples in electrolytes for sensitive electrochemical detection. The sensor is based on an aptamer-functionalized transparent electrode composed of nanoporous anodized alumina (NAA) grown on indium tin oxide (ITO)-covered glass. Electrochemical impedance changes in a thrombin binding aptamer (TBA)-functionalized NAA/ITO/glass electrode due to specific binding of α-thrombin are monitored for protein detection. The aptamer-functionalized electrode enables sensitive and specific thrombin protein detection with a detection limit of ∼10 pM and a high signal-to-noise ratio. The transient impedance of the alumina film-covered surface is computed using a computational electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) approach and compared to experimental observations to identify the dominant mechanisms underlying the sensor response. The computational and experimental results indicate that the sensing response is due to the modified ionic transport under the combined influence of steric hindrance and surface charge modification due to ligand/receptor binding between α-thrombin and the aptamer-covered alumina film. These results suggest that alumina film-covered electrodes utilize both steric and charge modulation for sensing, leading to tremendous improvement in the sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio. The film configuration is amenable for miniaturization and can be readily incorporated into existing portable sensing systems.

Electrochemical-driven green recovery of lithium, graphite and cathode from lithium-ion batteries using water.

The expected exponential increase in consumption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) would pose a unique challenge to the availability of near-critical resources like lithium and graphite in the upcoming decade. We present a lithium recovery process that utilizes a degradation mechanism, i.e., lithium plating, as a tool to concentrate metallic lithium at the anode/separator interface for convenient extraction at room temperature - using only water. Electrochemical characterization of fast charged (1-6 C) LIBs yielded a maximum capacity fade of 50% over ten cycles. The lithium plating was confirmed via voltage plateau analysis, coulombic efficiency, and DC resistance measurements. A maximum lithium plating condition was observed to exist between 4C and 5C, thereby limiting the energy consumption in the extraction process. Post-mortem film thickness measurement showed an incrementing film deposition with a maximum of 35 µm thickness. SEM and XPS analysis confirmed increasing concentration of a dense dendritic metallic lithium deposition on the anode/separator interface with C-rate. A green recovery process was adopted to extract the concentrated metallic lithium using distilled water. The lithium from the plated film, solid/electrolyte interface (SEI), electrolyte, anode, and cathode, was extracted as salts. A 37% improvement in lithium recoverability was achieved with fast charging under ambient conditions. XPS analysis showed ∼92% of lithium yield with no residual lithium in the graphite. In addition, the battery-grade graphite was recovered with 97% purity after heat treatment of the washed anode film, and concentrated transition metals oxides in the cathode to 93% purity for convenient extraction.

Aptamer functionalized microcantilever sensors for cocaine detection.

A cocaine-specific aptamer was used as a receptor molecule in a microcantilever-based surface stress sensor for detection of cocaine molecules. An interferometric technique that relies on measuring differential displacement between two microcantilevers (a sensing/reference pair) was utilized to measure the cocaine/aptamer binding induced surface stress changes. Sensing experiments were performed for different concentrations of cocaine from 25 to 500 µM in order to determine the sensor response as a function of cocaine concentration. In the lower concentration range from 25 to 100 µM, surface stress values increased proportionally to coverage of aptamer/cocaine complexes from 11 to 26 mN/m. However, as the cocaine concentration was increased beyond 100 µM, the surface stress values demonstrated a weaker dependence on the affinity complex surface coverage. On the basis of a sensitivity of 3 mN/m for the surface stress measurement, the lowest detectable threshold for the cocaine concentration is estimated to be 5 µM. Sensing cantilevers could be regenerated and reused because of reversible thermal denaturation of aptamer.

Magnetohydrodynamic Control of Interfacial Degradation in Lithium-Ion Batteries for Fast Charging Applications.

Interfacial anodic degradation in graphitic materials under fast charging conditions causes severe performance loss and safety hazard in lithium ion batteries. We present a novel method for minimizing the growth of these aging mechanism by application of an external magnetic field. Under magnetic field, paramagnetic lithium ions experience a magnetohydrodynamic force, which rotates the perpendicularly diffusing species and homogenizes the ionic transport. This phenomenon minimizes the overpotential hotspots at the anode/separator interface, consequently reducing SEI growth, lithium plating, and interfacial fracture. In situ electrochemical measurements indicate an improvement in capacity for lithium cobalt oxide/graphite pouch cell (20 mAh) charged from 1-5 C under an applied field of 1.8 kG, with a maximum capacity gain of 22% at 5C. Post-mortem FE-SEM and EDS mapping shows that samples charged with magnetic field have a reduced lithium deposition at 3C and a complete suppression of interfacial fracture at 5C. At 5C, a 24% reduction in the lithium content is observed by performing XPS on the anodic interfacial film. Finally, fast charging performance under variable magnetic field strengths indicate a saturation behavior in capacity at high fields (>2 kG), thereby limiting the field and consequent energy requirements to obtain maximum capacity gain under extreme conditions.

Resolving electrical stimulus triggered molecular binding and force modulation upon thrombin-aptamer biointerface.

Experimental and computational approaches are utilized to investigate the influence of electrostatic fields on the binding force between human coagulation protein thrombin and its DNA aptamer. The thiolated aptamer was deposited onto gold substrate located in a liquid cell filled with binding buffer, then the thrombin-functionalized atomic force microscopy (AFM) probe was repeatedly brought into contact with the aptamer-coated surface under applied electrical potentials of -100, 0, and 100 mV respectively. Force drops during the pull-off process were measured to determine the unbinding forces between thrombin and aptamer in a range of loading rates spanning from ~3 × 102 to ~1 × 104 pN/s. The results from experiments showed that both of the binding strength and propensity of the complex are drastically diminished under positive electrode potential, whereas there is no influence on the molecular binding from negative electrode potential. We also used a theoretical analysis to explain the nature of electrostatic potential and field inside the aptamer-thrombin layer, which in turn could quantify the influence of the electrostatically repulsive force on a thrombin molecule that promotes dissociation from the aptamer due to positive electrode potential, and achieve good agreement with the experimental results. The study confirms the feasibility of electrostatic modulation upon the binding interaction between thrombin and aptamer, and implicates an underlying application perspective upon nanoscale manipulation of the stimuli responsive biointerface.

Simulation-driven Selection of Electrode Materials Based on Mechanical Performance for Lithium-Ion Battery.

Experimental and numerical studies have shown that mechanical loading associated with lithiation/delithiation may limit the useful life of battery electrode materials. The paper presents an approach to parameterize and compare electrode material performance based on mechanical stability. A mathematical model was developed to determine particle deformation and stress fields based upon an elastic-perfectly plastic constitutive response. Mechanical deformation was computed by combining the stress equilibrium equations with the electrochemical diffusion of lithium ions into the electrode particle. The result provided a time developing stress field which shifts from purely elastic to partially plastic deformation as the lithium-ion diffuses into the particle. The model was used to derive five merit indices that parameterize mechanical stability of electrode materials. The merit indices were used to analyze the mechanical stability for the six candidate electrode materials-three for anode materials and three for the cathode material. Finally, the paper suggests ways to improve the mechanical performance of electrode materials and identifies mechanical properties that need to be considered for selection and optimal design of electrode materials.

Label free thrombin detection in presence of high concentration of albumin using an aptamer-functionalized nanoporous membrane.

Nanoporous alumina membranes have become a ubiquitous biosensing platform for a variety of applications and aptamers are being increasingly utilized as recognition elements in protein sensing devices. Combining the advantages of the two, we report label-free sensitive detection of human α-thrombin by an aptamer-functionalized nanoporous alumina membrane using a four-electrode electrochemical cell. The sensor response to α-thrombin was determined in the presence of a high concentration (500 µM) of human serum albumin (HSA) as an interfering protein in the background. The sensor sensitivity was also characterized against γ-thrombin, which is a modified α-thrombin lacking the aptamer binding epitope. The detection limit, within an appreciable signal/noise ratio, was 10 pM of α-thrombin in presence of 500 µM HSA. The proposed scheme involves the use of minimum reagents/sample preparation steps, has appreciable response in presence of high concentrations of interfering molecules and is readily amenable to miniaturization by association with existing-chip based electrical systems for application in point-of-care diagnostic devices.

Mechanical load-assisted dissolution of metallic implant surfaces: influence of contact loads and surface stress state.

Mechanical load-assisted dissolution is identified as one of the key mechanisms governing material removal in fretting and crevice corrosion of biomedical implants. In the current study, material removal on a stressed surface of cobalt-chromium-molybdenum (CoCrMo) subjected to single asperity contact is investigated in order to identify the influence of contact loads and in-plane stress state on surface damage mechanisms. The tip of an atomic force microscope is used as a well-characterized "asperity" to apply controlled contact forces and mechanically stimulate the loaded specimen surface in different aqueous environments from passivating to corroding. The volume of the material removed is measured to determine the influence of contact loads, in-plane stresses and the environment on the material dissolution rate. Experimental results indicate that surface damage is initiated at all the contact loads studied and as expected in a wear situation, removal rate increases with increase in contact loads. Removal rates display a complex dependence on residual stresses and the environment. In a passivating environment, the material removal rate is linearly dependent on the stress state such that surface damage is accelerated under compressive stresses and suppressed under tensile stresses. In a corrosive environment, the dissolution rate demonstrates a quadratic dependence on stress, with both compressive and tensile stresses accelerating material dissolution. A surface damage mechanism based on stress-assisted dissolution is proposed to elucidate the experimental observations.

Iterative control approach to high-speed force-distance curve measurement using AFM: time-dependent response of PDMS example.

Force-distance curve measurements using atomic force microscope (AFM) has been widely used in a broad range of areas. However, currently force-curve measurements are hampered the its low speed of AFM. In this article, a novel inversion-based iterative control technique is proposed to dramatically increase the speed of force-curve measurements. Experimental results are presented to show that by using the proposed control technique, the speed of force-curve measurements can be increased by over 80 times--with no loss of spatial resolution--on a commercial AFM platform and with a standard cantilever. High-speed force curve measurements using this control technique are utilized to quantitatively study the time-dependent elastic modulus of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS). The force-curves employ a broad spectrum of push-in (load) rates, spanning two-order differences. The elastic modulus measured at low-speed compares well with the value obtained from dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) test, and the value of the elastic modulus increases as the push-in rate increases, signifying that a faster external deformation rate transitions the viscoelastic response of PDMS from that of a rubbery material toward a glassy one.

Aptamer based electrostatic-stimuli responsive surfaces for on-demand binding/unbinding of a specific ligand.

We report an aptamer functionalized stimuli responsive surface that can controllably switch between binding and releasing its specific ligand under application of electrical stimuli. The high affinity of the aptamer for thrombin makes the surface undergo specific binding while electrostatic field induced actuation of the aptamer is utilized to release the ligand from the surface. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was utilized to determine the characteristic height change, associated with the specific binding of thrombin, on anti-thrombin aptamer coated surfaces. Subsequently, the thrombin/aptamer complex covered surfaces were subjected to different magnitudes of electrostatic field and height changes on the surface were measured to investigate the influence of an electrical field. Application of positive electrical potential led to the removal of thrombin from the aptamer-covered surface. While under moderate magnitude of negative electrical potential the binding complexes were maintained, increasing the magnitude led to the removal of both molecules from the surface. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the thrombin/aptamer complex under electrostatic fields show that thrombin dissociates from the aptamers in the presence of a positive electric field. These results demonstrate that aptamer covered surfaces undergo specific binding to the ligand and an electrostatic field may be used to disrupt the binding and on-demand release of the ligand from the surface.

Electrical Stimulus Controlled Binding/Unbinding of Human Thrombin-Aptamer Complex.

The binding/unbinding of the human thrombin and its 15-mer single stranded DNA aptamer, under the application of external stimulus in the form of electrostatic potential/electric field, is investigated by a combination of continuum analysis and atomistic molecular dynamics simulation. In agreement with the experiments that demonstrate the influence of electrostatic potential on the thrombin/aptamer complex, our computations show that the application of positive electric field successfully unbinds the thrombin from the aptamer. Results from umbrella sampling simulations reveal that there is a decrease in the free energy of binding between the thrombin and aptamer in presence of positive electric fields. Hydrogen bonding and non-bonded interaction energies, and hence the free energy of binding, between the thrombin and its aptamer reduce as the applied electric field is shifted from negative to positive values. Our analyses demonstrate that application of electrical stimulus modifies the molecular interactions within the complex and consequently, electrical field can be used to modulate the association between the thrombin and its aptamer.