[Nephroprotection--anaesthetic management of renal transplantation]. / Anästhesie und Organprotektion--Nephroprotektion: anästhesiologisches Management bei Nierentransplantation.

Kidney transplantation is a standard surgical procedure. Improvements of immunosuppressive therapy, donor management and surgical technique reduced perioperative complications and improved graft survival. In this review the authors discuss the anaesthetic management of kidney transplantation and nephroprotective strategies: reduction of ischemia-reperfusion injury, maintenance of optimal graft perfusion, avoidance of nephrotoxic agents and effective immunosuppression.

[Perioperative myocardial protection in non-cardiac surgery]. / Anästhesie und Organprotektion--Perioperative Myokardprotektion bei nicht kardiochirurgischen Eingriffen.

Due to ongoing demographic changes more and more older patients with co-existent cardiac diseases undergo non-cardiac surgery. The risk of postoperative complications, notably myocardial ischemia, is raised in these patients. An accurate preparation before surgery including the risk profile and the management of co-medication is of paramount importance. Beta-blockers and statins should be continued perioperatively. The management of platelet aggregations inhibitors requires an interdisciplinary approach. During surgery, tachycardia as well as hypertension and hypotension should be treated consequently. Perioperative myocardial infarction is often asymptomatic and diagnosis can be difficult. Sufficient analgesia is important in postoperative care of patients with co-existing cardiac diseases.

[Indications, risk factors, specialities and after-care of surgical treatment for cardiac and thoracic vascular diseases]. / Herz- und thorakale Gefäßchirurgie - OP-Indikationen, Risiken und Besonderheiten sowie OP-Nachsorge.

Despite a known high risk and complexity in the operative therapy of cardio-thoracic patients, cardiac surgery is medical routine activity today. The German Society of Cardiothoracic Surgery regularly analyses the more than 100.000 cases a year in Germany. Fixing procedural statics, it gives us the knowledge of individual risk factors and success rates for surgical therapy of our patients.Following we want to shortly summarize indications, risk factors, specialities and after-care of surgical treatment for cardiac and thoracic vascular diseases in adults.

[Coagulation disorders in the context of cardiac surgery - Clinical basics and mechanism based therapy]. / Herz- und thorakale Gefäßchirurgie - Gerinnungsstörungen: klinische Grundlagen und mechanismenbasierte Therapie.

Intra- and postoperative bleeding disorders are common in cardiac surgery. The etiology of perioperative coagulopathy frequently becomes apparent as a combination of several acquired and inherited disorders. Differential diagnosis of microvascular bleeding include altered homeostasis (e.g. anemia, hypothermia, acidosis, hypocalcemia), impaired primary hemostasis, antithrombotic medication, dilutive and consumptive coagulopathy, fibrinolysis and the absence or deficiency of coagulation factors. Timely detection of underlying pathology and subsequent rigorous treatment has the potential to minimize perioperative transfusion requirements, prevent resternotomy and improve patient outcome remarkably. Point-of-care-systems can provide fast bed-sided analysis, which contribute to early diagnosis and intervention. Individual and regularly revised algorithms, adapted to the individualized institutional infrastructure, may facilitate resource-saving treatment of perioperative coagulopathy.

[Vascular cannulation and hemodynamic monitoring for cardiac and thoracic vascular surgery - a review]. / Herz- und thorakale Gefäßchirurgie - Gefäßkanülierung bei HLM-Einsatz und hämodynamisches Monitoring.

Cardiac surgery requires cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) with extracorporeal circulation (ECC) for intracardiac procedures. The surgical strategy determines access for monitoring and insertion sites with high-flow cannulas. The perioperative care of cardiac surgical patients requires adequate hemodynamic monitoring for reasonable catecholamine therapy and fluid management. Therefore, the knowledge of the vascular anatomy is essential to provide professional care to patients undergoing ECC during thoracic vascular and cardiac surgery. This article is a review of hemodynamic monitoring and access for ECC in patients for adult cardiac surgery for anaesthesiologists and intensivists.

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase mediates the first and inducible nitric oxide synthase mediates the second window of desflurane-induced preconditioning.

OBJECTIVES: Nitric oxide synthases (NOSs) mediate the first window of anesthetic-induced preconditioning (APC). The authors tested the hypothesis that endothelial NOS (eNOS) mediates the first window and inducible NOS (iNOS) mediates the second window of APC. DESIGN: Randomized, prospective, blinded laboratory investigation. SETTING: Experimental laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Mice. INTERVENTIONS: Mice were subjected to a 45-minute coronary artery occlusion (CAO) and a 180-minute reperfusion. C57BL/6 mice received desflurane, 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration, for 30 minutes or 12, 24, 48, or 96 hours before CAO. In eNOS(-/-) and iNOS(-/-) mice, desflurane was given 30 minutes and 48 hours before CAO. In the control groups, no desflurane was administered. Myocardial infarct size (IS) was determined after staining with Evans blue and triphenyltetrazolium chloride. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The second window of APC was detectable at 48 hours but not at 12, 24, and 96 hours after preconditioning. In the control groups, IS was not different among the wild-type (50 ± 10%), eNOS(-/-) (52 ± 14%), and iNOS(-/-) (46 ± 10%) mice. The IS decreased significantly (p < 0.05) when desflurane was administered 30 minutes (10 ± 6%) or 48 hours (16 ± 7%) before CAO in wild-type mice, 48 hours (21 ± 13%) before CAO in eNOS(-/-) mice, and 30 minutes (13 ± 6%) before CAO in iNOS(-/-) mice. Desflurane given 30 minutes before CAO in eNOS(-/-) mice (60 ± 10%) and 48 hours before CAO in iNOS(-/-) mice (48 ± 21%) did not decrease the IS significantly compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS: Endothelial NOS and iNOS work independently to mediate the first and second windows of APC, respectively. Endothelial NOS is not necessary to trigger the second window of APC.

Comparison of the Airtraq and the Macintosh laryngoscope for double-lumen tube intubation: a randomised clinical trial.

CONTEXT: The Airtraq is a disposable optical laryngoscope that is available in a double-lumen tube version. Inserting a double-lumen tube is generally more difficult compared to conventional endotracheal intubation, mainly due to its configuration. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to compare the Airtraq with the Macintosh laryngoscope for intubation with a double-lumen tube in patients undergoing elective thoracic surgery. The main outcome was time needed for successful intubation. DESIGN: Prospective, randomised clinical trial. SETTING: A single centre, University Hospital of Würzburg, Germany, between July 2009 and June 2011. PATIENTS: After a scout laryngoscopy with a Macintosh laryngoscope, 60 adult patients were intubated by an anaesthesiologist with either an Airtraq (n = 30) or a Macintosh laryngoscope (n = 30). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The time needed for correct intubation, checked by flexible bronchoscopy, was recorded. The intubation difficulty scale (IDS) and Cormack and Lehane grade were noted. Haemodynamic variables and any evidence of oropharyngeal trauma were documented as well as postoperative sore throat, hoarseness and dysphagia. RESULTS: The mean time needed for correct intubation was 20.1 ± 16.5 s in the Airtraq group and 17.5 ± 10 s in the Macintosh group (P = 0.86). All intubations in both groups had an IDS less than 4. The Cormack and Lehane grade was I in all 30 patients in the Airtraq group; in the Macintosh group, it was I and II in 17 and 13 patients, respectively. The incidence of hoarseness was significantly higher in the Airtraq group 24 h postoperatively (P = 0.01). CONCLUSION: There was no significant difference between the Airtraq and the Macintosh laryngoscopes regarding the time needed to insert a double-lumen tube during elective thoracic surgery. Only subtle enhancement of visualisation and a higher incidence of hoarseness were observed in the Airtraq group. The Airtraq device did not result in superior patient safety in this setting.

Propofol inhibits desflurane-induced preconditioning in rabbits.

OBJECTIVES: The authors tested the hypothesis that ischemic and desflurane-induced preconditioning are blocked by propofol. DESIGN: A prospective, randomized, vehicle-controlled study. SETTING: A university research laboratory. SUBJECTS: New Zealand white rabbits (n = 52). METHODS: Pentobarbital-anesthetized rabbits were subjected to 30 minutes of coronary artery occlusion followed by 3 hours of reperfusion. Rabbits received 0.0 (control) or 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane (30 minutes' duration and a 30-minute memory period) or ischemic preconditioning (5 minutes of ischemia and a 30-minute memory period) in the absence or presence of propofol (10 mg/kg/h intravenously) or its vehicle (10% Intralipid emulsion; B Braun, Melsungen, Germany). The myocardial infarct size was measured with triphenyltetrazolium staining. Statistical analysis was performed with 1-way and 2-way analysis of variance when appropriate, followed by a post hoc Duncan test. Data are mean ± standard deviation. RESULTS: Myocardial infarct size was 56% ± 8% in control animals (n = 7). Desflurane significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the infarct size to 37% ± 6% (n = 7). Desflurane-induced preconditioning was blocked by propofol (65% ± 10%, n = 7) but not by its vehicle (45% ± 11%, n = 5). Propofol and its vehicle alone had no effect on the infarct size (62% ± 8% [n = 6] and 58% ± 3% [n=5], respectively). Ischemic preconditioning reduced infarct size in the absence or presence of propofol to 24% ± 7% (n = 7) and 29% ± 12% (n = 6). CONCLUSION: Desflurane-induced preconditioning markedly reduced infarct size and was blocked by propofol, whereas ischemic preconditioning was not blocked by propofol. The results suggest an important interference between propofol and anesthetic-induced preconditioning and might explain some contradictory findings in studies in humans.

Activation of adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase abolishes desflurane-induced preconditioning against myocardial infarction in vivo.

OBJECTIVES: Myocardial ischemia is accompanied by a rapid activation of adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). However, it is unclear whether this represents a potentially beneficial or detrimental event in the course of ischemic injury. The role of AMPK activation in the cardioprotective setting of desflurane-induced preconditioning has not been investigated to date. Hence, the current study was undertaken to address the role of AMPK activation during desflurane-induced preconditioning in vivo. DESIGN: A prospective randomized vehicle-controlled study. SETTING: A university research laboratory. SUBJECTS: Male New Zealand white rabbits (n = 44). INTERVENTIONS: The animals were subjected to a 30-minute coronary artery occlusion (CAO) followed by 3 hours of reperfusion. Desflurane (1.0 minimum alveolar concentration) was administered for 30 minutes and discontinued 30 minutes prior to CAO. Different groups of animals received the AMPK activator, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-b-riboside (AICAR), alone or in combination with desflurane. Infarct size was determined gravimetrically; AMPK activity and myocardial glycogen content were measured using specific assays. Phosphorylation of the AMPK substrate, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, was assessed by immunoblotting. Data are mean ± standard error of the mean. RESULTS: Desflurane significantly reduced the myocardial infarct size (36.7 ± 1.9%, p < 0.05) compared with the control group (61.6% ± 3.0%), concomitant with increased myocardial tissue levels of glycogen (2.09 ± 0.07 µg, p < 0.05). Activation of the AMPK by AICAR alone did not protect against ischemic injury (65% ± 3.3), but did abolish the cardioprotection elicited by desflurane (61.8% ± 4.2%) at the same time as increasing myocardial glycogen consumption (1.42 ± 0.15 µg/mL). CONCLUSIONS: The results obtained show that the pharmacologic activation of AMPK abolishes cardioprotection elicited by desflurane.

Time course of desflurane-induced preconditioning in rabbits.

OBJECTIVES: The authors tested the hypothesis that volatile anesthetic-induced preconditioning (APC) follows a similar time pattern as that described for ischemic preconditioning and that delayed APC is mediated by nitric oxide. DESIGN: A prospective randomized vehicle-controlled study. SETTING: A university research laboratory. SUBJECTS: New Zealand white rabbits (n = 75). METHODS: Rabbits were instrumented for the measurement of systemic hemodynamics and subjected to a 30-minute coronary artery occlusion (CAO) and 3 hours of reperfusion. Desflurane (1.0 minimum alveolar concentration) was administered for 30 minutes and was discontinued 0.5 hours, 2 hours, 3 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours, and 96 hours before CAO, respectively. In 2 separate experimental groups, the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor N-omega-nitro-L-arginine (L-NA) was administered 72 hours after the administration of 0.0 or 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane. The infarct size was determined gravimetrically. Data are mean +/- standard deviation. RESULTS: Desflurane significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the infarct size compared with the control (63% +/- 12%, n = 7) when administered 0.5 hours (35% +/- 5%, n = 7), 2 hours (35% +/- 9%, n = 7), 24 hours (31% +/- 8%, n = 7), 48 hours (30% +/- 11%, n = 6), and 72 hours (39% +/- 5%, n = 6) before CAO. However, when desflurane was administered 3 hours (53% +/- 9%, n = 7), 12 hours (71% +/- 6%, n = 7), or 96 hours (66% +/- 5%, n = 7) before CAO, the myocardial infarct size was not reduced. The second window (72 hours) of preconditioning was abolished by the NOS inhibitor L-NA (52% +/- 16%, n = 7). L-NA alone had no effect on infarct size (64% +/- 11%, n = 7). CONCLUSIONS: Desflurane induces a first (0.5-2 hours) and second window of preconditioning (24-72 hours) in the rabbit model of acute myocardial infarction. The second window of APC is mediated by nitric oxide.

Sevoflurane as opposed to propofol anesthesia preserves mitochondrial function and alleviates myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacological interventions reducing myocardial ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury include the administration of anesthetics. Both sevoflurane as well as propofol have been shown to elicit cardiac protection via distinct molecular mechanisms. We investigated the hypothesis that sevoflurane in contrary to propofol anesthesia elicits cardiac protection against I/R-injury via mitochondrial mechanisms of disease. METHODS: Male New Zealand white rabbits (n = 42) were subjected 30 min of coronary artery occlusion followed by 3 h of reperfusion. After induction with pentobarbital, the animals either received sevoflurane or propofol to maintain general anesthesia. Infarct size was determined gravimetrically after triphenyltetrazolium chlorid-staining. Cardiac mitochondria were isolated and mitochondrial oxygen consumption was measured using a Clark electrode. Mitochondrial respiratory chain complex activities (I-IV) were analyzed utilizing specific assays. Data are mean ± SD. RESULTS: Sevoflurane anesthesia significantly decreased the resulting myocardial infarct size compared to propofol anesthesia (p = 0.0275 vs. propofol). Mitochondria from animals receiving propofol anesthesia showed a significantly reduced mitochondrial respiratory control ratio (p = 0.01909 vs. sham) and impaired activities of respiratory complex I (p = 0.0147 vs. sham; p < 0.01 vs. sevoflurane) as well as respiratory complex IV (p = 0.0181 vs. sham). Mitochondrial dysfunction was absent in sevoflurane anesthesized animals. Furthermore, a significantly higher portion of complex I was found to be in its deactive form during I/R-injury in animals receiving sevoflurane anesthesia (p = 0.0123 vs. propofol). CONCLUSIONS: Sevoflurane as opposed to propofol anesthesia preserved mitochondrial respiration and elicited cardiac protection against I/R-injury.

Desflurane-induced postconditioning is mediated by beta-adrenergic signaling: role of beta 1- and beta 2-adrenergic receptors, protein kinase A, and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II.

BACKGROUND: Anesthetic preconditioning is mediated by beta-adrenergic signaling. This study was designed to elucidate the role of beta-adrenergic signaling in desflurane-induced postconditioning. METHODS: Pentobarbital-anesthetized New Zealand White rabbits were subjected to 30 min of coronary artery occlusion followed by 3 h of reperfusion and were randomly assigned to receive vehicle (control), 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane, esmolol (30 mg x kg(-1) x h(-1)) for the initial 30 min of reperfusion or throughout reperfusion, the beta2-adrenergic receptor blocker ICI 118,551 (0.2 mg/kg), the protein kinase A inhibitor H-89 (250 microg/kg), or the calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II inhibitor KN-93 (300 microg/kg) in the presence or absence of desflurane. Protein expression of protein kinase B, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, and phospholamban was measured by Western immunoblotting. Myocardial infarct size was assessed by triphenyltetrazolium staining. RESULTS: Infarct size was 57 +/- 5% in control. Desflurane postconditioning reduced infarct size to 36 +/- 5%. Esmolol given during the initial 30 min of reperfusion had no effect on infarct size (54 +/- 4%) but blocked desflurane-induced postconditioning (58 +/- 5%), whereas esmolol administered throughout reperfusion reduced infarct size in the absence or presence of desflurane to 42 +/- 6% and 41 +/- 7%, respectively. ICI 118,551 and KN-93 did not affect infarct size (62 +/- 4% and 62 +/- 6%, respectively) but abolished desflurane-induced postconditioning (57 +/- 5% and 64 +/- 3%, respectively). H-89 decreased infarct size in the absence (36 +/- 5%) or presence (33 +/- 5%) of desflurane. CONCLUSIONS: Desflurane-induced postconditioning is mediated by beta-adrenergic signaling. However, beta-adrenergic signaling displays a differential role in cardioprotection during reperfusion.

Differential role of Pim-1 kinase in anesthetic-induced and ischemic preconditioning against myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and anesthetic-induced preconditioning against myocardial infarction are mediated via protein kinase B. Pim-1 kinase acts downstream of protein kinase B and was recently shown to regulate cardiomyocyte survival. The authors tested the hypothesis that IPC and anesthetic-induced preconditioning are mediated by Pim-1 kinase. METHODS: Pentobarbital-anesthetized male C57Black/6 mice were subjected to 45 min of coronary artery occlusion and 3 h of reperfusion. Animals received no intervention, Pim-1 kinase inhibitor II (10 microg/g intraperitoneally), its vehicle dimethyl sulfoxide (10 microl/g intraperitoneally), or 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration desflurane alone or in combination with Pim-1 kinase inhibitor II (10 microg/g intraperitoneally). IPC was induced by three cycles of 5 min ischemia-reperfusion each, and animals received IPC either alone or in combination with Pim-1 kinase inhibitor II (10 microg/g intraperitoneally). Infarct size was determined with triphenyltetrazolium chloride, and area at risk was determined with Evans blue (Sigma-Aldrich, Taufkirchen, Germany). Protein expression of Pim-1 kinase, Bad, phospho-Bad, and cytosolic content of cytochrome c were measured using Western immunoblotting. RESULTS: Infarct size in the control group was 47 + or - 2%. Pim-1 kinase inhibitor II (44 + or - 2%) had no effect on infarct size. Desflurane (17 + or - 3%) and IPC (19 + or - 2%) significantly reduced infarct size compared with control (both P < 0.05 vs. control). Blockade of Pim-1 kinase completely abrogated desflurane-induced preconditioning (43 + or - 3%), whereas IPC (35 + or - 3%) was blocked partially. Desflurane tended to reduce cytosolic content of cytochrome c, which was abrogated by Pim-1 kinase inhibitor II. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that Pim-1 kinase mediates at least in part desflurane-induced preconditioning and IPC against myocardial infarction in mice.

Desflurane-induced cardioprotection against ischemia-reperfusion injury depends on timing.

OBJECTIVES: The authors tested the hypothesis that desflurane-induced cardioprotection depends on the timing of application and whether desflurane-induced postconditioning is mediated by nitric oxide. DESIGN: A prospective randomized vehicle-controlled study. SETTING: A university research laboratory. SUBJECTS: New Zealand White rabbits (N = 56). INTERVENTIONS: Rabbits were instrumented and subjected to a 30-minute coronary artery occlusion (CAO) and 3 hours of reperfusion. Animals were randomized to 8 groups (n = 7) and received 0.0 or 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration desflurane for 30 minutes before CAO (PRE), during CAO (ISCH), after CAO (POST), before and after CAO (PRE + POST), or continuously for 90 minutes starting 30 minutes before CAO (PRE + ISCH + POST). In 2 separate experimental groups, the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor N-omega-nitro-L-arginine (L-NA) was administered before reperfusion in the presence or absence of desflurane. Data are mean +/- standard deviation. RESULTS: Infarct size was 68% +/- 14% in control experiments. Desflurane significantly (p < 0.05) reduced infarct size in the PRE (43% +/- 9%) and POST groups (49% +/- 12%) but not in the ISCH group (69% +/- 9%). The PRE + ISCH + POST and PRE + POST groups produced similar reductions in infarct size to 47% +/- 12% and 43% +/- 9%, respectively. L-NA alone had no effect on infarct size (61% +/- 9%) but blocked postconditioning completely (L-NA + POST, 68% +/- 10%). CONCLUSIONS: Desflurane induces pre- and postconditioning but does not confer cardioprotection during ischemia in rabbits. The combination of pre- and postconditioning or continuous application does not provide additional cardioprotection. Furthermore, desflurane-induced postconditioning is mediated by nitric oxide.

Desflurane-induced preconditioning has a threshold that is lowered by repetitive application and is mediated by beta 2-adrenergic receptors.

OBJECTIVE: An optimal administration protocol to induce a maximal effect of anesthetic preconditioning has not been evaluated to date. In this study, desflurane preconditioning was characterized with respect to its threshold, dose dependency, and continuous versus repetitive application. Furthermore, the role of beta(2)-adrenergic receptors in anesthetic preconditioning was tested. DESIGN: A randomized controlled study. SETTING: Laboratory study in a University hospital. SUBJECTS: New Zealand white rabbits in vivo. INTERVENTIONS: Systemic hemodynamics were continuously measured. Rabbits were subjected to 30 minutes of coronary artery occlusion and 3 hours of reperfusion. Animals received desflurane continuously for 30 minutes at 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5; desflurane for 90 minutes at 0.5 or 1.5 MAC; or repetitively for three 10-minute periods at 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5 MAC before coronary occlusion. The beta(2)-adrenergic receptor blocker ICI 118,551 (0.2 mg/kg) or saline placebo was given in the absence or presence of 1.0 MAC desflurane. Myocardial infarct size was measured with triphenyltetrazolium staining. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Myocardial infarct size was 61% +/- 5% in control experiments. Desflurane, administered continuously at 0.5 MAC for 30 minutes (52% +/- 4%) or 90 minutes (56% +/- 8%) had no effect, whereas 0.5 MAC of desflurane given repetitively reduced infarct size to 36% +/- 7%. Desflurane administered continuously for 30 minutes at 1.0 or 1.5 MAC reduced infarct size to 35% +/- 5% and 39% +/- 4%, respectively. Repetitive application at 1.0 MAC (37% +/- 6%) or 1.5 MAC (29% +/- 4%) and continuous administration of 1.5 MAC for 90 minutes (32% +/- 6%) did not result in further infarct size reduction. ICI 118,551 did not affect infarct size (53% +/- 2%) but abolished desflurane preconditioning (51% +/- 5%). CONCLUSION: beta(2)-Adrenergic receptors mediate desflurane-induced preconditioning. Desflurane-induced preconditioning has a threshold that can be lowered by repetitive administration.

Differential role of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II in desflurane-induced preconditioning and cardioprotection by metoprolol: metoprolol blocks desflurane-induced preconditioning.

BACKGROUND: Anesthetic preconditioning is mediated by beta- adrenergic signaling. This study tested the hypotheses that desflurane-induced preconditioning is dose-dependently blocked by metoprolol and mediated by calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMK II). METHODS: Pentobarbital-anesthetized New Zealand White rabbits were instrumented for measurement of systemic hemodynamics and subjected to 30 min of coronary artery occlusion followed by 3 h of reperfusion. Rabbits were assigned to receive vehicle (control), 0.2, 1.0, 1.75, or 2.5 mg/kg metoprolol for 30 min, or the CaMK II inhibitor KN-93 in the absence or presence of 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration desflurane. Protein expression of CaMK II, phospholamban, and phospho-phospholamban was measured by Western blotting. Myocardial infarct size and area at risk were measured with triphenyltetrazolium staining and patent blue, respectively. RESULTS: Baseline hemodynamics were not different among groups. Infarct size was 60 +/- 3% in control and significantly (* P < 0.05) decreased to 33 +/- 2%* by desflurane. The CaMK II inhibitor KN-93 did not affect infarct size (55 +/- 4%) but blocked desflurane-induced preconditioning (57 +/- 3%). Metoprolol at 0.2 and 1.0 mg/kg had no effect on infarct size (55 +/- 3% and 53 +/-3%), whereas metoprolol at 1.75 and 2.5 mg/kg reduced infarct size to 48 +/- 4%* and 39 +/- 5%*, respectively. Desflurane-induced preconditioning was attenuated by metoprolol at 0.2 mg/kg, leading to an infarct size of 46 +/- 5%*, and was completely abolished by metoprolol at 1.0, 1.75, and 2.5 mg/kg, resulting in infarct sizes of 51 +/- 3%, 52 +/- 3%, and 55 +/- 3%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Desflurane-induced preconditioning is dose-dependently blocked by metoprolol and mediated by CaMK II.

Impact of ischemia and reperfusion times on myocardial infarct size in mice in vivo.

The murine in vivo model of acute myocardial infarction is increasingly used to study signal transduction pathways. However, methodological details of this model are rarely published, and durations of ischemia and reperfusion (REP) time vary considerably among different laboratories. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that infarct size (IS) is dependent on both duration of ischemia and REP time. Pentobarbital-anesthetized male C57BL/6 mice were intubated, mechanically ventilated, and instrumented for continuous monitoring of mean arterial blood pressure and heart rate. After left fourth thoracotomy, the left anterior descending coronary artery was ligated. Mice were randomly assigned to receive 30, 45, or 60 mins of coronary artery occlusion (CAO) and 120, 180, or 240 mins of REP, respectively. IS was determined with triphenyltetrazolium chloride and area at risk (AAR) with Evans blue, respectively. Arterial blood gas analysis and hemodynamics were not different among groups. Prolongation of CAO from 30 to 60 mins significantly (*P<0.05) increased IS from 18% +/- 5% to 69% +/- 3%*, from 20% +/- 2% to 69% +/- 6%* and from 42% +/- 10% to 75% +/- 2%* after 120, 180, and 240 mins REP, respectively. Moreover, IS was increased from 18% +/- 5% to 42% +/- 10%* (30 mins CAO) and from 40% +/- 3% to 72% +/- 6%* (45 mins CAO) when REP time was prolonged from 120 to 240 mins. IS was not increased when REP was prolonged from 120 to 240 mins at 60 mins CAO (69% +/- 3% vs. 75% +/- 2%). In the present study, we describe important methodological aspects of the murine in vivo model of acute myocardial infarction and provide evidence that, in this model, IS depends both on duration of ischemia and on REP time.

Activation of mitochondrial large-conductance calcium-activated K+ channels via protein kinase A mediates desflurane-induced preconditioning.

BACKGROUND: ATP-regulated K+ channels are involved in anesthetic-induced preconditioning (APC). The role of other K+ channels in APC is unclear. We tested the hypothesis that APC is mediated by large-conductance calcium-activated K+ channels (K(Ca)). METHODS: Pentobarbital-anesthetized male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to 45 min of coronary artery occlusion and 3 h reperfusion. Thirty minutes before coronary artery occlusion, 1.0 MAC desflurane was administered for 15 min alone or in combination with the large-conductance K(Ca) channel activator NS1619 (1 microg/g i.p.), its respective vehicle dimethylsulfoxide (10 microL/g i.p.), the large-conductance K(Ca) channel blocker iberiotoxin (0.05 microg/g i.p.), or the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor H-89 (0.5 microg/g intraventricular). Infarct size was determined with triphenyltetrazolium chloride and area at risk with Evans blue. Mitochondrial and sarcolemmal localization of large-conductance K(Ca) channels in cardiac myocytes was investigated with immunocytochemical staining of isolated cardiac myocytes. RESULTS: Desflurane significantly reduced infarct size compared with control animals (7.4% +/- 0.8% vs 51.3% +/- 6.1%; P < 0.05). Activation of large-conductance K(Ca) channels by NS1619 (7.5% +/- 1.8%; P < 0.05) mimicked and blockade of large-conductance K(Ca) channels by iberiotoxin (49.1% +/- 7.5%) abrogated desflurane-induced preconditioning. PKA blockade by H-89 abolished desflurane-induced (45.1% +/- 4.0%) but not NS1619-induced (9.0% +/- 2.4%, P < 0.05) preconditioning. Immunocytochemical staining revealed that large-conductance K(Ca) channels were localized in the mitochondria but not in the sarcolemma of cardiac myocytes. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that desflurane-induced APC is mediated in part by activation of mitochondrial large-conductance K(Ca) channels, and that activation of these channels by desflurane is mediated by PKA.

Activation of peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors α and γ mediates remote ischemic preconditioning against myocardial infarction in vivo.

Remote ischemic preconditioning (remote IPC) elicits a protective cardiac phenotype against myocardial ischemic injury. The remote stimulus has been hypothesized to act on major signaling pathways; however, its molecular targets remain largely undefined. We hypothesized that remote IPC exerts its effects by activating the peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) α and γ, which have been previously implicated in cardioprotective signaling. Male New Zealand white rabbits (n = 78) were subjected to a 30-min coronary artery occlusion followed by three hours of reperfusion. Three cycles of remote IPC consisting of 10-min renal ischemia/reperfusion were performed. The animals either received the PPARα-antagonist GW6471 or the PPARγ-antagonist GW9662 alone or combined with remote IPC. Infarct size was determined gravimetrically. Tissue levels of 15d-prostaglandin J(2) (15d-PGJ(2)), as well as the PPAR DNA binding were measured using specific assays. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction was used to analyze changes in endothelial nitric oxide synthase or inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA expression in relative quantity (RQ). Data are mean ± SD. As a result, remote IPC significantly reduced the myocardial infarct size (42.2 ± 4.9%* versus 61 ± 1.9%), accompanied by an increased PPAR DNA-binding (189.6 ± 19.8RLU* versus 44.4 ± 9RLU), increased iNOS expression (3.5 ± 1RQ* versus 1RQ), as well as 15d-PGJ(2) levels (179.7 ± 7.9 pg/mL* versus 127.9 ± 7.6 pg/mL). The protective response elicited by remote IPC, as well as the accompanying molecular changes were abolished by inhibiting PPARα (56.8 ± 4.7%; 61.1 ± 14.2RLU; and 1.91 ± 0.96RQ, respectively) or PPARγ (57.4 ± 3.3%; 52.7 ± 16.9RLU; and 1.54 ± 0.25RQ, respectively). (*Significantly different from control P < 0.05). In conclusion, the obtained results indicate that both PPARα and PPARγ play an essential role in remote IPC against myocardial infarction, impinging on the transcriptional control of iNOS expression.

Comparison of isoflurane-, sevoflurane-, and desflurane-induced pre- and postconditioning against myocardial infarction in mice in vivo.

The murine in vivo model of acute myocardial infarction is increasingly used to investigate anesthetic-induced preconditioning (APC) and postconditioning (APOST). However, in mice the potency of different volatile anesthetics to reduce myocardial infarct size (IS) has never been investigated systematically nor in a head to head comparison with regard to ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and postconditioning (IPOST). Male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to 45 min of coronary artery occlusion (CAO) and 180 min of reperfusion. To induce APC, 1.0 MAC isoflurane (ISO), sevoflurane (SEVO) or desflurane (DES) was administered 30 min prior to CAO for 15 min. In an additional group, ISO was administered 45 min prior to CAO for 30 min. To induce APOST, 1.0 MAC ISO, SEVO or DES was administered for 18 min starting 3 min prior to the end of CAO. IPC was induced by 3 or 6 cycles of 5 min ischemia/reperfusion, 40 or 60 min prior to CAO, respectively. IPOST was induced by 3 cycles of 30 sec reperfusion/ischemia at the beginning of reperfusion. Area at risk (AAR) and IS were determined with Evans Blue and TTC staining, respectively. IS (IS/AAR) was 50 +/- 4% (mean +/- SEM) in the control group and was significantly (*P < 0.05) reduced by 3x5 IPC (26 +/- 3%*), 6 x 5 IPC (26 +/- 4%*), IPOST (20 +/- 2%*), ISO APOST (19 +/- 1%*), SEVO APOST (15 +/- 1%*), DES APOST (14 +/- 2%*) and SEVO APC (27 +/- 6%*). ISO APC significantly reduced IS compared to control when administered 30 min (33 +/- 4%*), but not when administered 15 min (48 +/- 6%). DES APC significantly reduced IS compared to control and to SEVO APC (7 +/- 1%*). Within the paradigm of preconditioning, the potency of volatile anesthetics to reduce myocardial infarct size in mice significantly increases from ISO over SEVO to DES, whereas within the paradigm of postconditioning the potency of these volatile anesthetics to reduce myocardial infarct size in mice is similar.